University  of  California. 

FROM     1'HK    I.IDKAK'i 

!)R.    FRANCIS     L  I  E  B  I^R  , 
:  Hi-tory  and  Law  in  Columbia  College,  Now  York. 


GIFT   OF 

MICHAEL    REESE, 

73. 


noil  latin. 


AOOLD'S    CLASSICAL   SERIES, 

I. 

A  FIRST  AND  SECOND  LATIN  BOOK 

1ND  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR.     By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.    Revised  and  caiefully 

»      Corrected,  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    One  vol.  12mo.,  75  eta. 

n. 
LATIN  PROSE  COMPOSITION: 

A  Practical  Introduction  to  Latin  Prose  Composition.    By  THOMAS  K.  AHNOLD,  A.  M* 
Revised  and  Corrected  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    12mo.,  $1. 

III. 

FIRST  GREEK  BOOK; 

jVltb  Easy  Exercised  and  Vocabulary.    By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.    Revised  and  Oof 
reeled  by  J  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    12mo.,  75  cts. 

IV. 

GREEK  PROSE  COMPOSITION: 

A  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Prose  Composition.    By  THOMAS  K.  ARKOLD,  A.  BL 
Revised  ami  Corrected  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    One  vol.  12rao.,  75  cts. 

V. 

GREEK  READING  BOOK, 

For  the  L'se  of  Schools ;  containing  the  substance  of  the  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Cott 

etruing,  and  a  1  realise  on  the  Greek  Particles,  by  the  Rev.  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD, 

A.  M.,  and  also  a  Copious  Selection  from  Greek  Authors,  with  English 

Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory,  and  a  Lexicon,  by 

J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    12mo.,  $1  25 

VL 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS; 

With  Practical  Questions  and  Answers,  and  an  Imitative  Exercise  on  each  Chapter.    By 

THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.    Revised,  with  Additional  Notes,  by  Prof.  Johnson, 

Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  in  the  University  of  the  City  of 

New-York.    12mo.    A  new,  enlarged  edition,  with 

Lexicon,  Index,  &c.,  $1. 

"ARNOLD'S  GREEK  AND  LATIN  SERIES. — The  publication  of  this  valuable  collection  of 
classical  school  books  may  be  regarded  as  the  presage  of  better  things  in  respect  to  the  mode  of 
teaching  and  acquiring  languages.  Heretofore  boys  have  been  condemned  to  the  drudgery  of 
going  over  Latin  and  Greek  Grammar  without  the  remotest  conception  of  the  value  of  what 
they  were  learning,  and  every  day  becoming  more  arid  more  disgusted  with  the  dr^  and  un- 
meaning task ;  but  now,  by  Mr.  Arnold's  admirable  method — substantially  the  same  with  that  01 
lllendorff— the  moment  they  take  up  the  study  of  Latin  or  Greek,  they  begin  to  learn  sentences. 
lo  acquire  ideas,  to  see  how  the  Romaas  and  Greeks  expressed  themselves,  how  their  mode  of 
expression  differed  from  ours,  and  by  degrees  they  lay  up  a  stock  of  knowledge  which  is  utterly 
a^ioni^hing  to  those  who  have  dragged  on  moath  after  month  in  the  old-fashioned,  dry,  ana 
tedious  way  of  learning  languages. 

"  Mr.  Arnold,  in  fact,  has  had  the  good  sense  to  adopt  the  system  of  nature.  A  child  learn 
his  own  language  by  imitating  what  he  hears,  and  constantly  repeating  it  till  it  is  fastened  ~ 
the  memory ;  in  the  same  way  Mr.  A.  puts  the  pupil  immediately  to  work  at  Exercises  in  Lat__ 
and  Greek,  involving  the  elementary  principles  of  the  language — words  are  supplied — the  mode 


the  memory ;  in  the  same  way  Mr.  A.  puts  the  pupil  immediately  to  work  at  Exercises  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  involving  the  elementary  principles  of  the  language — words  are  supplied — the  mode 
of  nutting  them  together  is  told  the  pupil— lie  is  shown  how  the  ancients  expressed  their  ideas, 
and  theri,  by  repeating  these  things  again  and  again — iterum  iterumque — the  docile  pupil  haa 


them  indelibly  impressed  upon  his  memory  and  rooted  in  his  understanding. 

"  The  American  Editor  is  a  thorough  classical  scholar,  and  has  been  a  practical  teacher  for 
years  in  this  city.  He  has  devoted  the  utmost  care  to  a  complete  revision  of  Mr.  Arnold's  works, 
has  corrected  several  errors  of  inadvertence  or  otherwise,  has  rearranged  and  improved  various 
matters  in  the  early  volumes  of  the  series,  and  has  attended  most  diligently  to  the  accurate  prim- 
ing and  mechanical  execution  of  the  whole.  We  anticipate  most  confidently  the  speedy  adoption 
of  these  works  in  our  schools  and  colleges." 

V  Arnold's  Scries  of  Classical  Works  has  attained  a  circulation  almost  unparalleled,  being 
Introduced  into  nearly  all  the  Colleges  and  leading  Educational  Institutions  in  the  United  State*. 

30 


fnglisjj. 

MANUAL 

OP 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 

BY  WILHELM  PUTZ, 

AntkJT  of  Manuals  of  "  Ancient  Geography  and  History,"  u  Medictval  Geography  and 
History,"  $c. 

TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN.   REVISED  AND  CORRECTED. 

One  volume,  12mo.     SI. 

« Preface.— The  present  volume  completes  the  series  of  Professor  PLitz's  Handbooks  ol 
Ancient,  Medieval,  and  Modem  Geography  and  History.  Its  adaptation  to  the  wants  ol  itis 
student  will  be  found  to  bo  no  less  complete  than  was  to  be  expected  from  the  .trmer  1  arts, 
which  have  Ix-en  highly  approved  by  the  public,  and  have  been  translated  into  several  Ian- 
ruaces  besides  the  Knelish  The  difficulty  of  compressing  within  the  limits  of  a  single  volumt 
the  vast  amount  of  historical  material  furnished  by  the  progress  of  modern  states  and  nations 
in  power,  wealth,  science,  and  literature,  will  be  evident  to  all  on  reflection  ;  and  they  wiK 
find  occasion  to  admire  the  skill  and  perspicacity  of  the  Author  of  this  Handbook,  not  only  in 
the  arrangement,  but  also  in  the  facts  and  statements  which  he  has  adopted. 

aln  the  American  edition  several  improvements  have  been  made ;  the  sections  relating  to 
America  and  the  United  States  havs  been  almost  entirely  re- written,  and  materially  enlargt-d 
and  improved,  as  seemed  on  every  account  necessary  and  proper  in  a  work  intended  for  general 
use  in  this  country  ;  on  several  occasions  it  has  been  thought  advisable  to  make  certain  verbal 
corrections  and  emendations:  the  facts  and  dates  have  been  verified,  and  a  number  of  explan 
atory  notes  have  been  introduced.  It  is  hoped  that  the  improvements  alluded  to  will  be  lound 
to  add  to  the  value  of  the  present  Manual." 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 

IK   WHICH    THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    THE    ART    ARE    DEVELOPED   IN    CONNECTION    WITH 
THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    GRAMMAR; 

Embracing  full  Directions  on  the  subject  of  Punctuation :  with  copious 
Exercises. 

BY.  G.  P.  QUACKENBOS,  A.M. 
Rector  of  the  Henry  Street  Grammar  School,  N.  Y. 

One  volume,  12mo.    45  cts. 

EXTRACT   FROM   PREFACE. 

**  A  county  superintendent  of  common  school*,  speaking  of  the  important  branch  of  com- 
position, uses  the  following  language  :  'Fora  long  time  1  nave  noticed  with  regret  the  almost 
entire  neglect  of  th«  art  of  original  composition  in  our  common  schools,  and  the  want  of  a 
proper  text  lx»k  upon  this  essential  branch  of  education.  Hundreds  graduate  from  ourcomimwi 
schools  with  no  well-defined  ideas  of  the  construction  of  our  language  '  The  writei  mi<rm 
have  gone  further,  and  said  that  multitudes  graduate,  not  only  from  common  schools,  but 
from  mme  of  our  best  pnvate  institutions,  utterly  destitute  of  all  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  subject :  that  to  many  such  the  composition  of  a  single  letter  is  an  irksome,  to  some  an 
almost  impossible  task.  Yet  the  reflecting  mind  must  admit  that  it  is  only  this  practical  appli- 
cation of  grammar  that  renders  that  an  useful— that  parsing  is  secondary  to  composing,  and 
the  analysis  of  our  language  almost  unimportant  when  compared  with  its  synthesis. 

'•On«  great  reason  of  th*  nrtrlrct  noticed  above,  has,  no  doubt,  been  the  want  of  a  suitable 

text-bonL  on  «he  su'tjef  t.     Dunn!!  the  years  of  the  Author's  experience  as  a  teacher,  he  ha 

examined,  and  practically  tested  the  various  works  on  composition  with  which  he  has  mrl . 

the  result  has  been  a  conviction  that,  while  there  are  several  publications  well  calculated  to 

>•  pupils  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or  MV.-.-II.  there  it  not  one  suited  to  the  comprehension 

•T  (hone  between  nine  nnd  twelve:   at  which  lime  it  is  hi«  derided  opinion  that  this  branch 

•fcou'A  or  taken  up.     !  her  has  been  obliged  either  to  make  the  scholar  labor 

through  a  work  entirely  loo  difficult  for  him.  to  give  him  exercise*  not  founded  on  any  regulai 

•i  the  branch  altogether— and  the  disadvantages  of  eithftr  of  these  courses 

are  at  on< 

'  It  i«  this  c.invinion,  founded  on  the  experience  not  only  of  the  Author,  but  of  many 

•iher  teachers  with  whom  he  has  c.it.'ulted,  that  has  led  to  the  production  of  ihe  work  now 

•flersd  to  the  public,     It  claims  to  be  a  first-book  in  compos,  i»n.  ..nd  is  intended  to  initiate 

•  beginner,  by  easy  and  pleasant  step*,  into  thai  ail  Important,  but  hitherto  generally  ncg- 

6 


MANUAL 


OF 


ANCIENT 
GEOGRAPHY   AID   HISTORY. 


BY 


WILHELM  PtiTZ, 

PRINCIPAL   TUTOR    AT   THE   GYMNASIUM   OF   DUKE*. 


TRANSLATED   FROM   THE    GERMAN. 


EDITED    BY    THE    REV. 

THOMAS  KERCHEVER  ARNOLD,  M.  A, 

RECTOR    OF    LYNDON,   AND    LATE   FELLOW    OF   TRINITY   COLLEGE, 
CAMBRIDGE. 


SECOND    AMERICAN, 
REVISED    AND    CORRECTED    FROM    THE    LONDON    EDITION. 


NEW-YOEK : 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY,  200  BROADWAY. 
1851. 


ffc 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1849,  by 
D.  APPLKTON  &  COMPANY, 

in  Uw  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern    District 
of  New- York. 


PREFACE 

TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  first  edition  of  this  work  was  a  reprint  of  the  English 
edition,  with  a  feAV  verbal  alterations  and  occasional  corrections. 
But  the  favor  with  which  it  has  been  received  has  induced  the 
publishers  to  have  it  carefully  revised,  and  it  now  appears  with 
material  improvements.  The  most  important  is  in  the  references 
for  a  fuller  course  of  study,  English  authorities  having  been 
substituted  for  the  German,  except  where  there  was  a  translation 
of  the  German  work.  This,  it  is  believed,  will  give  the  list  a 
practical  value  which  it  could  not  have,  so  long  as  it  was  filled 
with  works  that  few  of  those,  into  whose  hands  such  a  book  will 
fall,  would  be  able  either  to  obtain  or  to  understand.  And  it  is 
with  pleasure  and  pride  that  we  have  inserted  among  these  re- 
ferences the  "  History  of  Roman  Liberty,"  by  Mr.  Eliot— a  work 
of  singular  beauty  and  of  great  learning,  and  which,  by  the  puri- 
ty and  elevation  of  its  views,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  useful 
guides  to  a  correct  estimate  of  the  results  and  processes  of  an- 
cient history. 

C.  W.  G. 
Brown  University,  May  21,  1850. 


PREFACE 

TO   THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


ONE  of  the  most  encouraging  features  in  our  system  of  educa- 
tion, is  the  attention  which  is  given  to  the  study  of  history.  Other 
branches  address  themselves  more  directly  to  our  personal  interests, 
and  are  mixed  up  with  the  daily  concerns  of  life.  Every  man  must 
read  and  write,  if  it  be  only  to  read  the  newspapers  or  write  an 
advertisement.  Arithmetic  and  geography  will  be  studied  as  long 
as  there  are  accounts  to  make  up,  or  products  to  send  to  market. 
And  railroads,  and  steamboats,  and  the  thousand  arts  of  polished 
society  will  always  insure  the  cultivation  of  the  exact,  as  well  as 
of  the  experimental  sciences.  These  are  the  conditions  of  every 
well-organized  state  which  man  can  no  more  refuse  to  fulfil,  than 
he  can  refuse  to  obey  any  other  law  of  his  nature. 

But  history,  as  a  serious  study,  stands  upon  different  grounds, 
and  addresses  itself  to  a  principle,  which  is  neither  developed  so 
early,  nor  so  universally  acknowledged.  Not  but  what  most  men 
acknowledge  its  importance  as  a  record  of  the  past,  and  feel  some- 
thing of  the  same  kind  of  interest  in  it,  that  they  do  in  any  other 
exciting  tale  ;  but  its  connection  with  the  present,  the  light  which  it 
throws  upon  what  we  ourselves  are  doing  every  day  of  our  lives,  its 
checkered  narrative  of  human  hopes  and  disappointments,  and  its 
manifold  lessons  of  encouragement  and  of  warning,  are  less  gene- 
rally accepted,  and  often  not  even  understood.  They  are  classed 
among  doubtful  things,  which,  study  as  much  as  we  may,  we  can 
never  make  perfectly  sure.  Characters  are  said  to  be  distorted  by 
party  prejudice,  because  no  two  men  agree  exactly  in  their  judg- 
ments of  them  :  and  facts  to  be  wholly  unsusceptible  of  proof,  be- 
cause every  witness  tells  his  story  in  his  own  way.  And  yet,  there 
is  scarcely  an  important  event  of  our  lives,  in  which  we  do  not  look 
back  to  our  own  experience,  or  to  that  of  others,  for  some  example 


iv  PREFACE. 

to  go  by  ;  and  the  gravest  questions  of  life  are  decided  every  day,  by 
the  same  » ales  of  testimony,  that  every  judicious  historian  applies  to 
history.  If  one  man  calls  Napoleon  a  selfish  usurper,  and  another, 
the  greatest  of  the  moderns,  it  is  not  history  that  is  at  fault.  The 
landscape  is  none  the  less  beautiful  because  you  have  no  eye  to  see 
it  with :  nor  is  truth  any  the  less  sure,  because  your  line  will  not 
reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  well.  Raleigh  is  said  to  have  burnt  the 
unpublished  half  of  his  history,  because  of  two  or  three  persons  who 
undertook  to  describe  an  occurrence  in  the  Tower  court,  which  he 
had  also  watched  from  his  prison  window,  each  gave  a  different 
version  of  it,,  and  his  own  differed  from  them  all.  But  what  jury 
would  dare  to  bring  a  verdict,  if  this  were  to  be  their  standard  1  or 
what  judge  could  pronounce  sentence  or  instruct  a  jury,  without 
dreading  that  he  might  be  sending  an  innocent  man  to  punishment, 
or  letting  a  villain  loose  upon  the  world  1  Let  us  judge  past  events 
as  we  do  those  that  are  passing  under  our  own  eyes  ;  let  us  try  to 
give  life  to  our  conceptions  by  comparing  them  with  our  experience ; 
and  above  all,  let  us  remember  that  the  master  art  of  doubting,  can 
never  be  learned  by  any  but  those,  who  are  carefully  trained  in  the 
science  of  belief. 

It  is  only  when  we  take  partial  views  of  history,  that  these 
objections  seem  unanswerable.  Look  broadly  over  it,  not  as  a 
record  of  incidents,  but  as  a  connected  series  of  developments, 
through  which  the  human  race  has  passed,  in  its  progress  from  the 
incomplete  civilization  of  the  ancients,  to  that  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge, those  higher  conceptions,  that  earnestness  of  endeavor  and 
that  hopeful  trust  in  the  future,  which  characterize  our  own  age,  and 
you  will  readily  find  an  answer  to  every  one  of  them.  For  you  will 
see,  that  although  here  and  there,  a  detail  may  escape  us,  the  general 
tenor  of  the  narrative  corresponds  with  the  result :  that  what  seems 
obscure  while  standing  by  itself,  becomes  clear  and  definite  the 
moment  that  you  put  it  in  its  proper  place ;  that  men  and  events 
look  very  differently  when  taken  in  that  natural  connection  which 
gives  you  the  motives  of  the  one  and  the  causes  of  the  other:  and. 
that  if  one  or  two  chapters  only  serve  to  sadden  us,  the  whole 
volume  will  inspire  us  with  trust  and  hope.  Nothing  makes  worse 
citizens  than  despondency,  and  there  is  nothing  which  political  de- 
spondency grows  on,  like  those  half-way  views  of  life,  which  we  are 
inevitably  led  to  form,  by  only  looking  around  us  or  only  looking 
behind,  without  feeling  how  the  past  and  the  present  work  together 
in  moulding  the  future.  If  you  would  make  good  citizens,  firm, 


PREFACE.  V 

hopeful,  and  earnest,  teach  them  their  duties  to  the  future  by  teach- 
ing them  their  obligations  to  the  past.  Life  itself  will  tell  them 
what  they  owe  to  the  present ;  and  what  may  not  a  country  hope 
from  men  grateful  to  their  fathers,  true  to  themselves,  and  who  know 
what  a  joy  there  is  in  making  the  future  too  our  own. 

Hence,  we  look  upon  the  place  which  history  has  at  last  won  in  . 
our  elementary  studies,  as  a  peculiarly  hopeful  feature  of  them.  We 
feel  more  confidence  in  the  principles  and  the  judgment  c  f  the  rising 
generation,  from  knowing  that  they  are  to  be  formed  by  the  lessons 
of  this  great  teacher;  and  acknowledging,  as  we  unhesitatingly  do, 
the  claims  of  every  other  branch  of  knowledge,  we  feel  that  our 
firmest  hopes  must  be  drawn  from  this,  which  is,  at  once,  the  judge 
and  the  recorder  of  them  all. 

But  to  do  this,  history  must  be  studied  as  a  science.  She  must 
not  be  considered  merely  as  a  record  of  phenomena,  but  as  an  ex- 
ponent of  laws.  As  a  narrative  of  facts,  no  man  would  have  the 
time  to  study  even  the  history  of  a  single  nation  thoroughly :  but  as 
the  science  of  humanity,  any  man  may  read  the  world's  history,  and 
read  it  well.  There  have  been  a  thousand  insignificant  things  and 
insignificant  men  in  every  age :  and  with  these,  history  has  seldom 
any  thing  to  do.  They  may  serve  to  fill  up  a  gap  in  chronology,  or 
form  a  kind  of  stepping-stone  from  one  point  to  another.  But  your 
passage  over  the  stream  would  be  very  slow,  if  you  were  to  stop 
and  examine  every  stone  that  gave  you  a  footing ;  and  your  history 
would  be  very  dull,  if  you  were  to  give  every  man  and  every  thing 
a  place  in  it. 

Now  to  see  what  really  deserves  a  place,  you  must  see  what 
relation  the  parts  bear  to  one  another :  and  to  see  what  kind  of  a 
place  you  can  give  it,  you  must  get  upon  some  eminence,  from 
which  you  can  look  down  upon  them  all  and  see  how  much  room 
the  whole  fills  up.  And  as  in  geography  you  begin  by  marking  out 
the  great  divisions  of  land  and  water,  before  you  attempt  to  trace 
the  course  of  mountains  or  rivers,  or  to  fix  the  sites  of  towns  and  the 
boundaries  of  nations,  so  your  true  starting  point  in  history,  is  by 
mapping  out  those  great  successions  of  empires  and  of  races,  which 
show  the  part  which  each  has  performed  in  the  progressive  develop- 
ment of  society.  Then  every  fact  falls  into  its  proper  place,  and 
events  class  themselves  in  your  mind,  according  to  their  due  propor- 
tions. You  know  what  to  look  for,  and  where  to  go ;  and  feeling 
yourself  at  home  in  the  great  world  of  history,  can  choose  out  for 
yourself  the  parts  that  you  wish  to  study  with  greater  accuracy,  and 


VI  PREFACg. 

study  them  by  themselves  without  losing  sight  of  their  bearing  upon 
the  whole. 

It  is  with  a  view  to  facilitate  this  method  of  historical  study,  that 
the  series  of  which  the  present  volume  forms  a  part,  is  offered  to  the 
public.  The  first  steps  are  strictly  elementary.  This  little  volume 
contains  a  clear  and  definite  outline  of  the  history  of  the  principal 
nations  of  antiquity.  To  render  it  still  more  clear,  a  concise  geogra- 
phy of  each  country  has  been  added,  in  which,  without  entering  into 
minute  details,  all  the  important  features  of  its  physical  aspect  have 
been  carefully  marked.  The  enumeration  of  the  sources  from  which 
we  derive  our  knowledge  of  them,  will  familiarize  the  student's  mind 
with  this  interesting  part  of  literary  history,  and  show  him,  from  the 
beginning,  how  many  irreparable  losses  we  have  suffered,  and  how 
much  labor  it  has  required  to  form  that  which  has  been  preserved  to 
us,  into  a  definite  and  instructive  picture  of  the  past. 

It  was  neither  consistent  with  the  plan  of  the  work,  nor  tbs  stage 
of  progress  for  which  it  was  designed,  to  enter  into  a  fuller  narrative 
of  events.  The  history  of  each  nation  is  given  with  as  much  brevity 
as  is  consistent  with  clearness,  and  with  as  much  detail  as  its  relative 
importance  required.  Where  the  whole  is  treated  upon  so  limited  a 
scale,  much  is  intentionally  left  for  the  instructor  to  supply ;  and 
something  too  for  the  student.  For  the  former  can  never  gain  a  firm 
hold  upon  his  pupils  by  confining  himself  exclusively  to  his  text- 
book ;  and  the  latter  will  lose  all  the  discipline  of  historical  study, 
unless  they  are  early  accustomed  to  carry  out  an  inquiry  and  use 
books  of  reference  for  themselves.  The  admirable  treatises  of 
Bojesen  on  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  should  be  taken  in  con- 
nection with  those  parts  of  the  volume  which  relate  to  Greece  and 
Rome  ;  and  a  fuller  historical  narrative  for  consultation,  or  for  a 
more  advanced  stage  of  study,  will  soon  be  laid  before  the  public  in 
the  series  which  has  already  been  announced. 

GEO.  W.  GREENE. 

Brown  Univernty,  April  11,  1849. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAQ& 

HISTORY — its  sources        ....  1 
Handmaids  of  History : 

I.  Geography              .                          .             .            .  2 

II.  Chronology      .....  2 

The  most  remarkable  Forms  of  the  Year               .  2 

The  most  important  historical  jEras                .  4 

III.  Genealogy              .             ....  5 

Divisions  of  History — Methods  of  History     .            .  5 


FIRST  DIVISION.— ASIA. 

Preliminary  Remarks       .  ...        5 

A.  GEOGRAPHICAL  VIEW  OF  ASIA. 

§   1.  Boundaries     ......         6 

2.  The  principal  Mountains  ...  6 

3.  Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Straits — Lakes — Rivers        .  .7 

4.  Ancient  division  of  Asia  .  .  .  7 

B.  PARTICULAR  STATES. 

I.    THE  ISRAELITES. 

Sources  of  Information          .  .  .  .        8 

§  5.     Geography  of  Palestine : 

Names       ......         8 

Boundaries — Mountains — Waters — Climate    .  9 

Its  divisions  at  different  times         .  .  .10 

Cities  in  Judaea  ....  10 

in  Samaria  .  .  .  .10 

in  Galilee         ;  .11 


Vlii  CONTENTS. 

FAG* 

§  6.     History  of  the  Israelites  : 

I.  From  Adam  to  Noah  .  .  .11 

II.  From  Noah  to  Abraham  .  .  .  12 

III.  From  Abraham  to  the  conquest  of  Palestine  .       13 
The  Mosaic  Laws:  1.  Religious;  2.  Civil  15 

IV-  From  the  conquest   of  Palestine    to  the  esta- 
blishment of  the   monarchy — Period   of  the 

Judges         .  .       17 

V.  From  the    establishment  of   the  monarchy  to 

the  separation  of  the  two  kingdoms  .       18 

VI.  The  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  .  21 

VII.  The  Israelites  under  the  rule  of  the  Persians  .       22 

$  7.     Literature,  Arts,  and  Sciences       ...  23 

II.    THE  INDIANS. 

Sources  of  Information  .  .  .  .24 

4  8.     Geography  of  Ancient  India : 

Name  and  Boundaries         .  .  .  .24 

Face  of  the  Country  and  Rivers  .  .  25 

The  Islands  .  .  .  .25 

Productions — Inhabitants          ...  26 

9.     Fragments  of  the  Ancient  History  of  India    .  .       26 

10.     Religion,  political  Condition,  Literature,   &c.    of  the 

ancient  Indians       .  .  .  .  .27 

III.    THE  BABYLONIANS. 

Sources  of  Information  .  .  .  .31 

$11.     Geography  of  Babylon: 

Situation — Soil — Rivers — Cities       .  .  .32 

Buildings  of  Babylon    ....  33 

12.  History  of  the  Babylonians     .  .  .  .33 

13.  Religion,  Literature,  &c.  of  the  Babylonians       .  35 

IV.    THE  ASSYRIANS. 

Sources  of  Information     ....  37 

§  14.     Geography  of  Assyria: 

Name  and  Situation — Soil — Cities  .  .       37 

15.  "History  of  the  Assyrians  ...  38 

16.  Religion,  Literature,  &c.  of  the  Assyrians     .  .      40 

V.     THE  MEDES. 

Sources  of  Information  .  .       41 

$  17.     Geography  of  Media  : 

Boundaries— Soil    .  .  41 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

§  18.     History  of  the  Medes          .  .  41 

Various  Accounts  of  the  relation  which  Cyrus  Dore  to 

Astyages     .  .  .  .  .  -.43 

19.    Religion,  Literature,  &c.  of  the  Medes       .  .  43 

§  VI.    THE  PERSIANS. 

Sources  of  Information              .             .  .             .44 

§  20.     Geography  of  the  Persian  Empire               .  ,             45 
Countries  belonging  to  the  Persian  Empire  : 

A.  On  this  side  the  Euphrates         .  .             .45 

B.  Between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  .            46 

C.  Between  the  Tigris  and  the  Indus  .             .     46 

D.  The  Alpine  Country  between  Oxus  and  laxartes     48 

21.  A.  History  of  the  Persians  before  Cyrus      .  .  48 
B.  History  of  the  Persians  from  Cyrus  to  the  dissolution 

of  the  Empire       .  .      48 

22.  Religion,  Constitution,  &c.  of  the  Persians  .  58 

VII.    THE  PHCENICIANS. 

Sources  of  Information  .  .  .  .59 

§  23.     Geography  of  Phoenicia      ....  60 

24.  Foreign  Settlements  of  the  Phoenicians  .  .      60 
General  View  of  the  Phoenician  Colonies                 .  60 

25.  Fragments  of  Phoenician  History  .  .  .61 

26.  Religion,  Inventions,  Commerce,  Arts  and  Manufactures 

of  the  Phoenicians          .  .63 


VIII.    THE  STATES  OF  ASIA  MINOR. 

Sources  of  Information               .             .             .  .65 
§  27.     Geography  of  Asia  Minor : 

Name— Soil— Rivers    ....  65 

Divisions  and  Cities             .             .             .  .66 

28    History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lydia    .            .            .  67 


SECOND  DIVISION.— AFRICA. 

Preliminary  Remarks   .            .            .            .  .68 

A.  GEOGRAPHICAL  VIEW  OF  AFRICA. 

§  29.     Boundaries                                                     *            .  69 

30.  The  Soil 69 

31.  Seas,  Lakes,  and  Rivers      ....  69 

32.  Division  of  Africa  .     70 


X  CONTENTS. 

B.   THE  STATES  OF  AFRICA. 

I.  THE  ETHIOPIANS. 

FAGK 

Sources  of  Information              .             .             .  .70 
§  33.     Geography  of  Ethiopia : 

Name  and  extent — Soil             ...  70 

Rivers — Inhabitants             .            .            .  .71 
34.     The  State  of  Meroe : 

Geography — History     ....  71 

Religion,  &c.— Trade         .            .            .  .72 

II.  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

Sources  of  Information       ....  72 
§  35.     Geography  of  Egypt : 

Name  and  Boundaries — Soil  and  Climate    .  .      73 

Seas— Lakes — Rivers                ...  74 

Natural  Productions — Division — Cities        .  .      75 
36.     History  of  the  Egyptians : 

1.  Fabulous  period  to  the  reign  of  Sesostris       .  77 

2.  From  Sesostris  to  the  autocracy  of  Psammetichus     78 

3.  From  the  reign  of  Psammetichus  to  the  Persian 

conquest         .             .             .             .  .80 

4.  Egypt  under  Persian  rule     .             .            .  81 
§  37.    Religion  of  the  Egyptians         .            .            .  .82 

Constitution           .            .            .            .            .  83 

Sciences            .            .             .             .            .  .84 

Art            .                         ....  85 


III.    THE  CARTHAGINIANS  (CARCHEDONII). 

Sources  of  Information  .  .  .  .87 

§  38.     Geography  of  the  Kingdom  of  Carthage     .  .  88 

39.  Foreign  Possessions  and    Settlements  of  the  Cartha- 

ginians       .  .  .  .  .  .88 

40.  History  of  the  Carthaginians : 

1.  From  the  building  of  Carthage  to  the  Wars  with 

the  Greeks  in  Sicily         ...  89 

2.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Ware  with  the  Greeks 

in  Sicily  to  the  Ware  with  the  Romans          .      90 

3.  From    the    beginning  of   the   Ware   with   the 

Romans  to  the  destruction  of  Carthage  91 

41.  Religion  of  the  Carthaginians  .            .            .  .93 
Constitution           .....  94 
Literature— Trade        .                        .  .95 


CONTENTS.  XI 


THIRD  DIVISION.— EUROPE. 

PAGE 

Preliminary  Remarks             .            .            .  .96 

A.  GEOGRAPHICAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE. 

§  42.     The  Boundaries     .....  97 

43.  The  principal  Mountains         .             .             .  .97 

44.  Seas  and  Gulfe      .....  97 
Straits — Lakes — Rivers           .            .            .  .98 

45.  The  Countries  of  Europe  ...  99 

B.  INDIVIDUAL  STATES  OF  EUROPE. 

I.    THE  GREEKS. 
Sources  of  Information  ....      100 

A.  GEOGRAPHY  OF  GREECE. 

§  46.     The  name  of  Greece       .            ...            .  102 

47.  The  Boundaries          .            .            .            .  .      102 

48.  The  Mountains   ...            .            .            .  103 

Promontories         .      .             .             .             •  .      104 

49.  Seas— Gulfs— Strait— Lakes— Rivers       .             .  104 

50.  Climate  and  Products  of  Greece          .             .  .      105 

51.  Divisions  of  Greece          ....  105 

52.  Topography  of  Greece : 

A.  Northern  Greece  ....      105 

B.  Central  Greece,  or  Hellas,  in  its  more  restricted 

sense         .            .            .            .            .  107 

C.  The  Peloponnesus           .             .             .  .110 

D.  The  Greek  Islands              .            .            .  112 

B.  HISTORY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


FIRST  (MYTHICAL)  PERIOD — FROM  THE  EARLIEST  NOTICES  TO  THE 
MIGRATION  OF  THE  DORIANS,  B.C.  1104. 

§  53.     The  earliest  Population  of  Greece      .  .114 

54.  Myths  concerning  the  Migrations  of  the  Hellenic 

Tribes 115 

55.  The  Heroic  Age 116 

Myths  concerning  Expeditions  undertaken  by  the 

Greeks  conjointly         .  .  .  .  117 


Xll  CONTENTS. 


SECOND  PERIOD — FROM  THE  MIGRATION  OF  THE  DORIANS  TO  THE 
PERSIAN  WAR,  1104—500. 

PAGE 

§  56.     The  Migration  of  the  Dorians,  or  Heraclidse  .  .      120 

57.  The  Greek   Colonies  on   the  western  coast   of  Asia 

Minor,  and  the  adjacent  islands : 

1.  ^Eolian  Colonies         .             .             .  .121 

2.  Ionian  Colonies    ....  122 

3.  Dorian  Colonies          .             .             .  .122 

58.  Origin  of  Republican  Constitutions           .             .  122 
The  four  great  National  Games          .             .  .125 

59.  Sparta      ......  126 

60.  The  two  first  Messenian  Wars           .             .  .128 

61.  Athens 129 

62.  The  Grecian  Colonies                          .             .  .      135 

Dorian  Colonies  in  Lower  Italy  .  .  135 

Achaean  Colonies  in  Lower  Italy    .  .  .      136 

Chalcidian  Colonies — Dorian  Colonies  .  .  136 

•     Outline  of  the  History  of  Syracuse          .  .136 

Colonies  of  Miletus — Colonies  of  the  Phocaeans— 
Colony  of  Zacynthus  .  .  .  137 

THIRD  PERIOD — FROM  THE  PERSIAN  WARS  TO  THE  DECLINE  OP 
GRECIAN  INDEPENDENCE,  500 — 33b. 

$  63.     The  Persian  Wars 137 

64.  The  Third  Messenian  War          ...  141 

65.  The  Age  of  Pericles  : 

A.  Degeneracy  of  the  Athenian  Democracy  .      142 

B.  Foreign  and  Domestic  Wars  during  this  period        143 

66.  The  Peloponnesian  War         ....      144 

I.  Ten  Years'  War  to  the  Fifty  Years'  Truce  of 

Nicias          .  .  .  .  .145 

II.  From  the  renewal  of  the  War  to  the  issue  of 

the  expedition  against  Sicily  .  .147 

III.  The  Decelean  War  .  .  148 

67.  The  Hegemony  of  Sparta      .  .  .  .150 

1.  The  Supremacy  of  the  Thirty  at  Athens  150 

2.  War  of  the  Spartans  with  the  Persians  .      151 

3.  The  Corinthian  War      ...  151 

4.  The  Olynthian  War  .  .  .153 

68.  The  War  between  Thebes  and  Sparta     .  .  153 

69.  The  War  of  the  Confederates  against  Athens  .      155 

70.  The  Phocian  or  Sacred  War       .  .  .  156 

71.  The  War  against  Philip  II.  of  Macedonia      .  .157 

1.  On  the  Macedonian  coast — 2    In  Thessaly  .  157 

3.  On  the  coasts  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace  .      158 

4.  The  Sacred  War  against  Amphissa              .  158 

5.  The  decisive  struggle  in  Bceotia             .  .      159 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 


PA  OK 

72.    Religion  of  the  Greeks— Deities         .  .  .159 

Constitution  .  .  .  .  .162 

Literature        .  .  .  .  .  .163 

Art 169 

Trade 171 


II.    THE  MACEDONIANS. 

Sources  of  Information      .            .            .  .172 
§  73.     Geography  of  Macedonia : 

Boundaries — Mountains       ,             .             .  .172 

Waters— Rivers— Cities              .             .  .173 

74.  History  of  Macedonia  to  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  .     173 

75.  Philip  II. 174 

76.  Alexander  the  Great    .                        *.             .  .175 

77.  Partition  of  the  Persico-Macedonian  empire  .           181 


III.    THE  KINGDOMS  WHICH  AROSE  OUT  OF  THE 
MACEDONIAN  MONARCHY. 

Succession  of  Kings           .  .             .             .183 

§  78.     Macedonia  and  Greece  .             .             .             .183 

Schools  of  Philosophy         .  .             .             .186 

79.  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  .             .             .             .187 

A    Flourishing  condition  of  the  empire  under  the 

three  first  Ptolemies              .             .             .  187 

B.  Decline  and  fall  of  the  empire     .             .  .188 

C.  Alexandrian  Literature          .             .             .  188 

80.  The  Syrian  Empire  under  the  Seleucidae          .  .     190 

81.  Kingdoms  which  revolted  from  the  Syrian  dominion  193 

82.  The  Kingdom  of  Pontus           .             .             .  .197 

83.  Bithynia  and  Cappadocia                 .             .             .  197 


IV.    THE  ROMANS. 
Sources  of  Information  ....     198 

A.     GEOGRAPHY   OF    ITALY. 

§  84.  Names  and  Boundaries  of  Italy            .             .             .     200 

85.  The  Mountains  of  Italy      .  .             .201 

86.  Seas— Lakes— Rivers  .             .             .             .202 

87.  Soil,  Climate,  and  Products  of  Italy  .            .          203 

88.  Divisions  of  Italy        .....    204 

89.  The  ancient  Inhabitants  of  Italy : 

A.  The  most  ancient  races :  1 .  The  Pelasgi ;  2.  The 
Opici,  Osci,  and  Ausones ;  3.  The  Sabelli ;  4. 
The  Umbri ;  5.  The  Ligures  .  .  204 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
B.    Foreign   Settlers;    1.  The  Etrusci ;    2.  Grecian 

Settlements ;  3.  The  Gauls      .  .  .205 

§  90.     Topography  of  Italy : 

A.  Upper  Italy  .  .  .  .207 

B.  Central  Italy    .  :  .  .  .208 

C.  Lower  Italy,  or  Magna  Graecia       .  .          213 

D.  The  Islands 214 

B.  HISTORY   OF   EVENTS   ANTECEDENT   TO   THE  BUILDING   OF   ROME. 

§91.     Legend  concerning  the  immigration  of  the  Trojans 

into  Latium      .....          216 

C.  HISTORY   OF   ROME. 

§  92.  Legend  concerning  the  building  of  Rome        .  .216 

FIRST  PERIOD— rRoME  UNDER  KINGS. 

§93.     Romulus 217 

94.  Numa  Pompilius  .  .  .  .          218 

95.  Niebuhr's  view  of  the  origin  and  earliest  inhabitants 

of  Rome  .  .  .  .  .    218 

96.  The   earliest    constitution  of    Rome   under   Servius 

Tullius:  The  King— The  Senate— The  Comitia 
Curiata  .....  220 

97.  Tullius  Hostilius  : — A  war  with  Alba  Longa — Second 

War  with  Veii  and  Fidenae  .  .  .221 

98.  Ancus  Marcius : — A  war  with  four  Latin  cities     .          221 

99.  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus  .  .  .  .222 

100.  Servius  Tullius       .....        223 

101.  The  Constitution  of  Servius  Tullius : 

Plebs — Tribus — Centuriae — Census — Comitia  cen- 
turiata — Military  Constitution     .  .  .    223 

102.  L.  Tarquinius  Superbus     ....          226 

SECOND  PERIOD — ROME  AS  A  FREE  STATE. 

a)  Aristocracy. 

$  103.  The  Consuls  ...  .  227 

104.  Consequences  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins      .  228 

105.  Secession  of  the  Plebs—  JEdilea  plebeii  .  231 

106.  Ware  to  the  period  of  the  Decemvirate:  1.  The  war 

with  the  Volsci ;  2.  War  of  the  Fabii  against  Veii ; 

3.  Ware  with  the  ^Equi  and  Volsci  .  .    232 

107.  Struggle  of.  the   Plebeians  with   the    Patricians  for 

equality  of  Civil  Rights:  1.  The  rogation  of  the 
tribune  C.  Terentilius  Haraa  ;  2.  The  first  decem- 
virate  ;  3.  The  second  decemvirate  ;  4.  The  laws  of 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

the  consuls  Valerius  and  Horatius ;  5.  The  roga- 
tions of  the  tribune  C.  Canuleius — Two  Censors  233 
§  108.     The  last  War  against  Veii     .             .             .             .237 

109.  War  with  the  Gauls — M.  Manlius           .             .  237 

110.  Termination  of  the  struggle  between  the  Patricians 

and  Plebeians  by  the  Licinian  Rogations : — Pra- 

torship — Curule  jEdiles       .             .             .  239 

fc)  Democracy — aa)  To  the  subjugation  of  Italy  in  266. 

111.  Their  wars— to  the  Samnite  wars       .  ,  .241 

112.  First  war  with  the  Samnites        .             .             .  241 

113.  War  with  the  Latins  .  x         .  .  .242 

114.  Second  war  with  the  Samnites    .             .             .  243 
Contemporaneous  war  against  the  Etruscans,  Sam- 
nites, Umbrians,  and  Hernicans            .             .  243 

115.  Third  war  with  the  Samnites              .             .             .  244 

116.  War  with  Tarentum  and  with  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  245 

117.  Complete  Subjugation  of  Italy            .             .             .  247 
Connection  of  the  conquered  States  with  Rome  247 

118.  Domestic  History  of  Rome  during  this  period             .  248 

56)  From  the  subjugation  of  Italy  to  the  Gracchi. 

FOREIGN  WARS. 

§  119.  The  first  Punic  war :  1.  Campaign  in  Sicily  ;  2.  Sicily 
the  theatre  of  war  by  sea  and  land  ;  3.  Campaign 
in  Africa  ;  4.  Sicily  a  second  time  the  theatre  of 

war  by  sea  and  land           ....  249 

120.  War  with  the  Illyrians    ....  252 

121.  Conquest  of  Cisalpine  Gaul    ....  253 

122.  Second  Punic  war:  1.  War  in  Italy;  2.  Contempo- 

raneous war  in  Spain  ;  3.  Conclusion  of  the  war 

in  Africa    ......  254 

Pedigree  of  the  Scipios    ....  254 

123.  The  two  wars  against  Philip  III.,  king  of  Macedonia  258 

124.  War  with  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria           .             .  260 

125.  Third  Macedonian  War         .  .  .  .260 

126.  The  last  wars  with  Macedonia  and  Greece          .  262 

127.  The  third  Punic  war  .  .  .  .262 

128.  Further  wars  in  Spain     ....  263 

129.  Wars   against   the  Gauls,  Ligurians,  Carnians  and 

Istrians       ......  264 

130.  First  Insurrection  of  the  Slaves  in  Sicily              .  264 

131.  Domestic  History  during  this  period  .             .             .  265 
Increase  in  the  number  of  Prators           .             .  265 
Administration  of  the  provinces — Meaning   of  the 

word  "province"    .....  266 

Relations  of  Rome  with  other  free  States            .  266 


XVi  CONTENTS. 

cc)  From  the  Gracchi  to  the  autocracy  of  August 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Republic. 

SIVIL  AND  FOREIGN  WARS. 

PAGE 

§  132.     The  two  Gracchi       .....  267 

133.  The  war  with  Jugurtha   ....  269 

134.  War  with  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones   .             .             .  270 

135.  Second  Insurrection  of  the  Slaves  in  Sicily          .  270 

136.  To  the  Social  War 270 

137.  The  Mareic  or  Social  War           ...  271 

138.  Civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  ;    and  first  war 

against  Mithridates             ....  273 

139.  Changes  effected  in  the  Constitution  by  Sulla       .  276 

140.  The  war  against  Sertorius      ....  277 

141 .  The  Servile  War ;  or  war  of  the  Gladiators  and  Slaves  278 

142.  War  against  the  Pirates          .  .  .  .278 

143.  The  two  last  wars  against  Mithridates     .             .  279 

144.  Catiline's  Conspiracy  .  .  .  .281 

145.  The  First  Triumvirate     ....  282 

146.  Caesar's  war  in  Gaul  .  .  .  .  .283 

147.  The  civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey           .  285 

148.  Caesar's  wars  in  the  East :   1 .  The  Alexandrian  war ; 

2.  The  war  against  Pharnaces        .             .             .  287 

149.  Caesar's  last  wars  against  the  partisans  of  Porapey : 

1.  The  war  in  Africa  ;  2.  The  war  against  the  sons 

of  Pompey  in  Spain            ....  288 

150.  Death  of  Caesar 289 

151.  Consequences  of  Caesar's  assassination            .             .  290 

152.  The  Second  Triumvirate             .            .            .  291 

153.  Foreign  wars  of  Antony  and  Octavian           .             .  293 

154.  The  war  between  Octavian  and  Antony              .  294 

THIRD  PERIOD — ROME  UNDER  EMPERORS. 

§  155.     C.  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus  Augustus             .            .  295 

Pedigree              .....  298 

156.  Four  Emperors  of  the  House  of  Livia  ;    Tiberius ; 

Caligula  ;  Claudius  ;  Nero               .             .             .  299 

157.  Three  Emperors  proclaimed  by  the  Legions :  Sulpicius 

Galba ;  Otho ;  Vitellius       .  .  .  .301 

158.  The  Three  Flavii :  Vespasianus;  Titus;  Domitian  301 

159.  The  most  flourishing  period  of  the  empire :  Nerva — 

Trajanus — Hadrianus — Antoninus  Pius — M.  Au- 

relius  Antoninus     .  302 

160.  Decline  of  the  empire  under  the  Praetorians         .  304 

161.  Period  occupied  by  partitions  of  the  Empire,  until  the 

reign  of  Constantine           ....  309 

162.  Constantine  the  Great,  sole  Emperor       .            .  311 

163.  The  successors  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  per- 

manent division  of  the  Empire        .            .            .  313 


CONTENTS.  XV11 


PAGE 

164.  The  Western  Roman  Empire— to  its  fall        .  .315 

165.  Religion  of  the  Romans— Deities  .  .  320 
Art  of  War    .             .             .             .             .             .323 

Literature  .....  324 

Arts 328 

Trade  and  Manufactures  .  .  329 

166.  Historico-Geographical  View  of  the  Roman  Empire : 

A.  European  Countries     ....     329 

B.  Countries  in  Asia  .  .  .  331 

C.  African  Countries        .  .  .  .332 


MANUAL 

OF 

ANCIENT 
GEOGRAPHY  AND   HISTORY 


INTRODUCTION. 

UNIVERSAL  history  is  the  record  of  those  facts,  by  1 
which  the  internal  and  external  relations  of  human  society  A 
have  been  created  and  modified. 

The  sources  of  history  are  either  articulate  or 
mute. 

The  articulate  are  divided  into 

1.  Oral:    such   as    legends,  traditions,  and  historical 
ballads. 

2.  Written :     as    inscriptions  on  buildings,   columns,  B 
stones,  and  tablets,  especially  those  of  Greece  and  Rome ; 
coins,  medals,  seals ;  documents,  such  as  treaties,  articles 
of  peace,   proclamations,  records  of  public  transactions, 
&c.  (these  sources  are  especially  available  for  mediaval 
and  modern  history) ;  annals  (the  historical  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  the  annals  of  the  Phoenicians,  Persians, 
and  Romans) ;  chronicles  (especially  those  of  the  middle 
ages) ;  and  historical  works,  either  contemporaneous  with 
the  events  which  they  record,  or  written  subsequently. 

The  mute  are  pictures  and  statues,  coats  of  arms,  all  c 
sorts  of  buildings  and  works  of  art,  columns,  altars,  mili- 
tary intrenchments,  ruins,  domestic  implements,  weapons, 
&c. 

By  the  term  historical   investigation  we  under- 


2  INTRODUCTION.  1 2. 

(1)  stand  the  collection  of  facts  from  these  various  sources, 
A  together  with  a  critical  examination  of  their  credibility. 

The  handmaids  of  history  are,  I.  Geography, 
topical  as  well  as  physical  and  political,  the  last  being 
further  divided  into  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern. 

II.  Chronology,  or  the  science  of  computing  time, 
which  teaches  us  to  define,  according  to  a  settled  standard, 
the  duration  and  succession  of  events.  This  standard  is 
partly  natural  (as  the  revolutions  of  the  earth  and  moon, 
on  which  is  grounded  the  division  of  time  into  years, 
B  months,  and  days),  partly  artificial  and  arbitrary,  the  com- 
mencing point  for  the  calculation  of  those  natural  periods 
and  their  further  sub-division  having  been  settled  by  legis- 
lators. Hence  the  distinction  between  astronomical  and 
historical  chronology  ;  the  former  defining  the  natural  por- 
tions of  time,  and  the  latter  giving  us  the  artificial  or 
civil  divisions,  as  well  as  the  events  which  have  been 
adopted  as  landmarks  to  distinguish  the  commencement 
of  different  aras. ! 

The  most  remarkable  forms  of  the  year. 

2  1-  The  variable  solar  year  of  the  Egyptians  consisted  of  twelve 
c  months  (each  of  which  contained  thirty  days),  with  five  supplemen- 
tary days.  1461  Egyptian=  1460  Julian  years  or  the  Sothiac  cycle, 
so  called  from  Sothis  or  Thoth,  the  Egyptian  name  of  Sirius,  the  he- 
liacal rising  of  which  marked  the  rising  of  the  Nile,  an  important 
epoch  in  Egypt.  Munetho's  chronology  is  founded  on  the  Sothiacal 
cycles. 

2.  The  Chaldeans  and  Babylonians  are  generally  supposed  to  have 
adopted  the  same  form  and  commencement  of  the  year  as  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  it  seems,  however,  by  no  means  improbable  that  their  civil 
year,  like  that  of  all  the  Semitic  nations,  Syrians,  Arabians,  and 
Hebrews,  was  divided  into  lunar  months. 

D  3.  The  Greeks,  particularly  the  Athenians,  the  only  Grecian  nation 
with  whose  chronology  we  are  fully  acquainted,  had  a  lunar  year  of 
twelve  months,  consisting  alternately  of  thirty  and  twenty-nine  days. 
Three  months  were  intercalated  every  eight,  or  seven  every  nineteen 
years,  in  order  to  fix  the  commencement  of  the  year  at  one  uniform 
season,  viz.  the  summer  solstice.  The  month  was  divided  into  three 
decades.  Their  day  began  at  sunset,  like  other  nations  (Jews  and 
Mahometans),  whose  division  of  time  was  governed  by  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  moon. 

4.  Until  the  year  B  c.  45,  the  Roman  mode  of  computing  time  was 
very  unsettled  and  imperfect  Under  Romulus  they  had  the  Etruscan 

1  Perhaps  a  Gothic  word.  [It  occurs  in  a  Latin  form  in  Isidore's 
Origines.] 


2.]  INTRODUCTION.  3 

year  of  304  days,  or  ten  months,  which  was  exchanged  by  Numa  (2) 
for  a  lunar  year  of  355  days,  or  twelve  months.     To  this  year  the  ^ 
Decemviri  added  an  intercalary  month  twice  in  four  years  (once  of 
twenty-two  and  once  of  twenty-three  days).     In  the  year  B.  c.  45, 
Julius  Caesar,  as  Pontifex  Maximus,  established  a  settled  method  of 
computation  by  the  adoption  of  the  solar  year,  with  an  intercalary 
day  once  in  four  years  (after  the  23rd  Feb.).     The  Roman  month 
[2,  D]  was  also  subdivided  into  three  portions :  Calends  (the  first  day 
of  the  month),  Nonae  (the  ninth  day  before  the  Idus),Idus  (in  months 
of  thirty-one  days  the  fifteenth,  and  in  others  the  thirteenth  day), 
from   which    the    single   days  were   reckoned    backwards.      They 
reckoned  also4»y  weeks  of  eight  days  (Nundinae).     The  day  began  B 
at  sunrise  [and  was  therefore  of  variable  length],  but  afterwards  at 
midnight.  , 

5.  The  Christians  availed  themselves  of  the  Julian  calendar,  but  at 
the  same  time  borrowed  from  the  Jews  the  division  of  the  year  into 
weeks,  and  named  their  days  after  the  saints.  The  council  of  Nicaea 
decided  that  the  feast  of  Easter  should  always  fall  on  the  first  Sunday 
after  the  full  moon  following  the  vernal  equinox.  In  the  middle 
ages,  the  beginning  of  the  year  varied  in  different  nations,  some 
reckoning  from  the  1st  of  January,  others  from  the  1st  of  March,  the 
Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Easter,  Christmas,  &c. ;  nor  was  c 
it  until  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  that  the  1st  of  January  was 
adopted  (by  an  ordinance  of  Pope  Innocent  XII.)  as  the  invariable 
commencement.  The  Julian  calendar,  according  to  which  every 
year  had  an  excess  of  11',  14",  30'",  was  amended  by  Gregory  XIII. ; 
ten  days  (the  aggregate  amount  of  the  excess)  being  left  out  in  the 
year  1582,  an  arrangement  by  which  the  15th  October  was  made 
immediately  to  follow  the  4th,  it  being  also  settled  that  in  future 
three  days  should  be  left  out  in  every  400  years. 

The  Mahometans  neglecting  the  correspondence  of  the  lunar  and  D 
solar  year,  count  by  lunar  years  of  354  days,  with  12  months  of  29 
and  30  days  alternately,  adding  a  day  11  times  in  30  years.     Week 
of  7  days — day  begins  at  sunset. 

Republican  calendar  of  the  French,  first  used  Nov.  26,1793  ;  abol-  E 
ished  Dec  31,  18U5.     Dated  from  Sept.  22,  1792.     Year  began  at 
midnight  of  the  day  of  the  autumnal  equinox  ;  divided  12  months  of 
30  days,  with  5  additional  days  for  festivals,  and  every  4th  year,  6  ; 
months  divided  by  decades  ;  days  into  10  hours  of  100  minutes  each. 

(  Vindemiaire  (Vintage  month),  Sept.  22  to  Oct.  21. 
Autumn,  <  Brumaire  (Foggy  month),  Oct  22  to  Nov.  20. 
(  Frimaire  (Sleety  month),  Nov  21  to  Dec.  20. 

Nivose  (Snowy  month),  Dec.  21  to  Jan.  19. 
Winter,  ^  Pluviose  (Rainy  month),  Jan.  20  to  Feb.  18. 

Ventose  (Windy  month),  Feb.  19  to  March  20. 

Germinal  (Budding  month),  March  21  to  April  19. 


Spring, 


Summer, 


Floreal  (Flowery  month),  April  20  to  May  19. 
Prairial  (Pasture  month),  May  20  to  June  18. 
Messidor  (Harvest  month),  June  19  to  July  18. 
Fervidor  or  Thermidor  (Hot  month),  July  19  to  Aug.  17. 
Fructidor  (Fruit  month),  Aug.  18  to  Sept.  16. 


INTRODUCTION.  [3. 


The  most  important  historical  aras. 

3      1.  Among  the  Babylonians  the  aera  of  Nabonassar,  (26  Feb.)  747. 

A  2.  The  Hebrews  reckoned  at  first  by  the  ages  of  their  patriarchy 
and  afterwards  by  the  years  of  their  governors.  The  most  remark- 
able a;ras  are  the  destruction  of  the  first  Temple  (586),  the  Seleucian 
(312),  that  of  the  Maccabees  143  B.  c.),  and  the  aera  of  the  world 
(calculated  by  Rabbi  Hillel  in  the  fourth  century).  'B.  c.  3761.) 

3.  The  Olympiad  of  the  Greeks,  a  period  of  .bur  years,  begin- 
ning with  the  year  776.     This  mode  of  computing  time  did  not  come 
into  general  use  until  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  when  it  was  em- 
ployed by  the  historian  Timaeus  of  Sicily  ;  it  did  not,  however,  super- 
sede, but  merely  existed  in  conjunction  with*  the  more  ancient  mode 

B  of  naming  the  year  after  some  person  in  authority ;  at  Sparta,  for 
instance,  after  the  first  Ephor,  and  at  Athens  after  the  Archon 
(Archon  Eponymus). 

4.  Among  the  Romans,  the  only  aera  recognized  in  public  pro- 
ceedings was  the  Consular,  which  was  retained  even  under  the 
empire  until  the  reign  of  Justinian  (541).     The  aara  ab  urbe  conditd 
also  came  into  general  use  among  writers  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
Its  commencement  is  fixed  by  Varro  in  the  year  B.  c.  753,  and  by 
Cato  in  752. 

5.  In   the  Syrian  empire,  they  had   the   aera   Seleucidarum, 
C  (1  Oct.)  312,  in  which  year  Seleucus  Nicator  overthrew  Demetrius 

Polwrcetes,  at  Gaza,  and  occupied  Babylon.     This  aera  is  still  in  use, 
at  least  for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  among  the  Syrian  Christians. 

6.  The  Christians  of  the  West,  in  the  first  centuries,  were  accus- 
tomed to  distinguish  the  year  either  by  the  date  of  the  emperor's 
accession,  or  still  more  frequently  by  the  names  of  the  Consuls ;  but 
as  the  Consular  aera  began  about  the  fourth  century  to  lose  its  im- 
portance, they  adopted  the   Indiction-Cycle,a  tax  period  of  15 
years,  begun  Sept.  1,312  (according  to  the  Benedictines  313),  and 
counted  Ind.  1,2,  &c.,  up  to  15,  when  it  began  anew.    This  aera  was 

D  also  in  its  turn  abandoned  by  degrees,  with  the  constitution  from  which 
it  derived  its  origin.  In  conjunction  with  this  aera,  which  appears  in 
public  documents  as  late  as  the  16th  century,  the  sera  from  the  birth 
of  CHRIST,  invented  by  the  Roman  abbot  Dionysius  Exiguus  (t556), 
soon  came  into  general  use,  and  has  been  retained  to  the  present 
day,  although  its  commencement  is  fixed  four,  or  perhaps  six  years 
too  late.  The  Christians  of  the  East  observed  partly  the  Seleucian, 
and  partly  the  <era  Diocletiani  or  Martyrum,  (29  Aug.)  A.  D.  284,  in 
commemoration  of  the  persecution  under  Diocletian.  This  aera  is 
still  in  use  among  the  Coptic  and  Abyssinian  Christians.  We  find, 

E  also,  among  the  Orientals  a  variety  of  aeras,  such  as  the  Alexandrine, 
that  of  Julius  Africanus,  the  Byzantine,  &c. 

7.  Among  the  Mahometans,  since  the  death  of  the  Caliph  Omar, 
the  aera  has  been   the   Hegira   (Hedschra),  commencing  on  the 
evening  of  the   14th  or   15th  of  July,  622.     It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  flight  of  Mahomet  (Mohammed)  did  not  occur  at 
that  time,  but  in  the  third  month  of  the  first  year  of  the  Hegira. 


4.]  ASIA.  5 

8.  The  French  method  of  reckoning  by  the  years  of  the  republic  (3) 
was  abolished,  after  being  in  use  twelve  years  (1793 — 1805).  An  A 
attempt  was  made  by  Joseph  Scaliger,  in  1609,  to  reduce  all  the 
rarious  computations  of  time  to  one  sera,  viz.,  the  Creation  of  the 
World,  according  to  which  he  proposed  to  arrange  the  events  of  all 
nations  and  ages ;  a  plan  which  has  been  also  adopted  by  Petavius, 
Usher,  and  others.  But  as  these  authorities  were  unable  to  agree 
respecting  the  settlement  of  the  epochal  year,  a  more  simple  and 
convenient  method  (the  computation  of  years  before  and  after  the 
birth  of  CHRIST),  invented  by  Riccioli,  has  been  in  general  use 
since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

III.  Genealogy,  or  the  record  of  the  origin,  multipli-  B 
cation,  and  affinities  of  different  races. 
History  is  divided  with  reference  to 

1.  Its  contents :    into  political  history,  and  the  history 
of  civilization. 

2.  Its  extent :  into  universal  and  special. 

3.  The  portions  of  time  comprehended:  into  1.  The  his- 
tory of  Antiquity,  from  the  earliest  period  of  which  we 
have  any  notices,  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Western  empire, 
A.  D.  476.     2.  The  history  of  the  Middle  Ages,  to  the  dis-  c 
covery  of  America  in  1492.      3.  The  history  of  Modern 
Times,  to  the  present  day. 

Methods  of  history.  The  annalistic,  ethnographic,  and 
synchronistic,  or  by  years,  by  nations,  or  by  classing  con- 
temporaneous events  together. 


FIRST  DIVISION. 

ASIA. 

Asia,  the  largest  quarter  of  the  globe,  and  the  cradle  of  4 
the  human  race,  is  universally  recognized  as  the  native 
land  of  civilization,  the  most  remarkable  religious  systems 
(the  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Mahometan,  with  those  of  D 
Buddha,  Zoroaster,  and  Confucius  [Kon-fu-tse],)  having 
originated  there :  as  well  as  the  most  perfect  and  richest 
languages,  most  of  the  arts,  sciences,  and  inventions ;  trade, 
industry,  and  political  science.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
civilization  which  had  commenced  in  Europe  at  a  later 
period,  was  almost  annihilated  by  immigrations  of  Asiatic 
hordes  (Huns,  Seldschuks,  Mongols),  none  of  whom, 
except  the  Arabians,  exercised  a  favorable  influence  on 
the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Its  enormous 


6  ASIA.  [5,  6. 

(4)  extent  (five  times  that  of  Europe),  and  its  situation  in 
A  three  distinct  zones  (chiefly  however  in  the  temperate), 
have  rendered  Asia  superior  to  the  other  quarters  of  the 
world  in  wealth,  magnificence,  and  variety  of  productions 
in  the  animal,  and  still  more  in  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  a 
variety  which  is  found  not  only  in  the  space  bounded  by 
its  northern  and  southern,  but  in  that  which  lies  between 
its  eastern  and  western  extremities. 

India,  its  southern  portion,  has  always  been  a  field  for  the  display 
of  commercial  enterprise,  the  result  of  which  has  been  the  discovery 
B  of  new  seas  and  a  (so-called)  New  World.  The  operations  of  trade 
have  been  rendered  comparatively  easy  by  the  great  extent  of  sea- 
coast,  as  well  as  by  the  deep  gulfs  and  mighty  rivers  of  that  impor- 
tant peninsula. 

A.     Geographical  View  of  Asia. 
§  1.  Its  Boundaries. 

5  Although  the  ancients  were  unacquainted  with  the  ex- 
treme  northern  and  eastern  portions  of  Asia,  they  seem  to 
have  been  aware  (at  least  after  the  expeditions  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great)  that  this  quarter  of  the  globe  was  washed  by 
three  different  oceans,  and  on  the  western  side  by  an  inland 
sea,  the  most  considerable  in  the  world.    Its  boundaries  on 
the  land  side  are  variously  reported. 

C  Herodotus  mentions  the  P  ha  sis,  as  separating  it  from  Europe; 
others  speak  of  the  T  a  n  a  is  (Don},  as  its  boundary  on  that  side.  The 
older  geographers  considered  Egypt  sometimes  partially,  sometimes 
entirely  as  belonging  to  Asia.  Strabo  mentions  the  Arabian  gulf  as 
its  western  boundary. 

§  2.     The  principal  Mountains  of  Asia. 

6  The  ancients  mention  as  detached  branches  of  the  Ural 
chain  (the  greater  part  of  which  was  unknown  to  them), 
the  Hyperborei,  Riphaei  (Rhymnici,  also  Alani)  Monies. 

D  They  were  much  better  acquainted  with  the  southern  chain, 
the  Taurus,  which  commences  in  Asia,  and  after  sending 
out  a  branch,  the  Caucasus,  in  Armenia  towards  the 
north,  divides  itself  in  Sogdiana  into  two  main  arms,  which 
inclose  a  vast  desert  (now  called  Kobi),  and  are  united  by 
the  I  ma  us  (Mustag).  One  branch  of  this  southern  chain 
is  the  Paropamisus  (Hindu-Khu),  crossed  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  a  western  continuation  of  the  Himalayan  range 
(EmOdus). 


7,  8.]  ASIA.  7 

§  3.     The  Waters  of  Asia. 
Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Straits. 

In  the  north  the  Frozen  Sea  (mare  Scythicum).  7 

In  the  east  the  Eastern  Ocean  (Oceanus  E6us).  A 

In  the  south  the  Indian  Ocean,  with  the  Erythr&an  sea 
(between  the  peninsulas  of  Arabia  and  India),  the  Persian 
gulf  and  the  Arabian  gulf,  or  Red  Sea. 

In  the  west  the  inner  sea  (called  by  Herodotus  %$s  fj 
&dlacraa,  rj  xatf  fjfAtx?  tfaJiaava,  t)  law  duJLaava,  r\  ivio<; 
#«A«(rtr«),  now  called  the  Mediterranean.  The  parts  of  it 
which  washed  the  coasts  of  Asia  were  the  ^E  g  e  a  n  Sea  (now 
the  Archipelago),  the  Hellespont  (straits  of  Dardanelles), 
the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Marmora),  the  Thracian  Bospd- 
rus  (straits  of  Constantinople),  the  Pontus  Euxlnus  [==hos-  B 
pitable  sea),  called  in  ancient  times  Axenus  [the  inhospi- 
table] ;  the  Black  Sea  (in  contradistinction  to  the  other 
inland  seas,  which  were  named  the  White  Sea  by  the 
Arabian  geographers),  the  CimmerianBosporus  (straits 
of  Kaffa  or  Jenikale),  the  Mseotis  (called  also  the  Palus 
Mseotis  and  Lacus  Maeotis),  now  the  Sea  of  Azov. 

LAKES. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  the  largest  lake  in  the  world,  which 
probably  once  communicated  with  the  Sea  of  Aral,  for 
which  reason  no  mention  is  made  of  the  latter  in  ancient 
writers.  The  Lacus  Asphaltites,  or  Dead  Sea,  and  the  Lake  c 
of  Genezareth,  or  Sea  of  Galilee. 

RIVERS  emptying  themselves 

Into  the  Indian  Ocean  :  the  Ganges,  Indus  (Sind),  and 
the  twin  streams  Tigris  (also  Tigres)  and  Euphrates, 
both  of  which  discharge  their  waters  into  the  Persian  gulf. 

Into  the  Pontus  Euxlnus :  the  Halys  (Kisil  Irmak), 
the  Phasis. 

Into  the  Caspian  Sea  :  the  twin  streams  Ox  us  (Amu),  D 
and  Jaxartes  (Sirr  or  Sihon),  both  into  what  is  now  called 
the  Sea  of  Aral;  from  Europe  the  Rha  (Volga). 

§  4.     Ancient  division  of  Asia. 

A.     THE  CONTINENT.  8 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  divided  Asia  either  into 
1.    Upper  and  Lower  Asia  (^   wVw   x«i  y  X«TW 
2 


8  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  [9,  10. 

(8)      separated  by  the  Halys ;  thence  called  also  Asia  within 
A  and  without  the  Halys.  • 

Or,  2,  into  Asia,  on  this  side,  or  within  the  Taurus,  and 
on  the  other  side,  or  without  the  Taurus.     The  former  was 
also  called  Asia  proper.     The  name  of  Asia  Minor  first 
occurs  (in  Orosius)  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
B.     THE  ISLANDS. 

In  the  Mediterranean:  Cyprus;  in  the  ^Egean  sea, 
Rhodus,  the  Sporades,  Samos,  Chios,  Lesbos,  Te- 
nedos. 

B      In  the  Indian  Ocean:    Taprobane  (Ceylon),  Insula 
Bon aeF or tunse  (Sumatra),  and  labadii  insulse  (Java). 
The  more  distant  southern,  and  most  of  the  eastern  and 
northern  islands  were  unknown  to  the  ancients. 

B.     Particular  States. 
I.     The  Israelites. 

9  Sources  of  information. — Hebrew:  The  principal  source  of 
information  is  the  Holy  Bible,  especially  the  books  of  Moses  or  the 
Pentateuch  (Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy), 
the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  the  holy 
Psalmists,  and  the  Prophets. — We  have  also  the  Talmud,  or  Jewish 
tradition. 

C  Greek:  Flavius  Josephus  ('lovSa'iicfjs  iXwrcw?  7  B.  'lovia- 
iVijf  dpxaioAoyiuff  20  B.),  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. — Trogus 
Pompeius  in  the  Latin  extract  of  Justin,  xxxvi.  c.  2,3.) 

For  Geography:  Strabo  (16,  2),  Ptolemaeus  (5,  15 — 17), 
Plinius  (H.  N.  5,  13 — 19),  and  particularly  the  Onomasticon 
urbium  et  locorum  Scripturae  Sacrae,  written  by  Eusebius  of 
Caesarea,  and  still  extant  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  translation  by 
Jerome. — Mod.  Milman's  Hist,  of  the  Jews.  Eliot's  Hist,  of  Roman 
Liberty,  ch.  7. 

§  5.   Geography  of  Palestine. 

10  Names.  In  the  Old  Testament,  the  country  between 
the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean  is  called  Canaan  (also 
the  land  of  the  Hebrews,  Jehovah's,  as  being  the  peculiar 
D  possession  of  Jehovah),  Israel  (the  promised  Land).  The 
name  of  Palestine  was  given  at  first  to  the  country  of  the 
Philistines  in  south-western  Canaan,  but  by  degrees  it 
became  the  term  most  frequently  employed  in  the  West  to 
signify  the  whole  country ;  which  was  also  denominated 
the  Holy  Land,  as  being  the  theatre  of  events  recorded  in 
sacred  history.  It  received  the  name  of  Judaa  after  the 
Babylonian  captivity,  because  Judah  was  the  chief  of  the 
tribes. 


10.]  ASIA. — THE    ISRAELITES.  9 

Boundaries  (in  the  time  of  the  Judges) :  on  the  west  (10) 
the  Mediterranean  sea,  N.  Phoenicia  and  Syria,  E.  the  A 
Syrian   desert   (country  of  the  Ammonites),    S.  Arabia 
(country  of  the  Amalekites,  Edomites,  and  Moabites). — 
David  subdued  Syria ;  and  Solomon's  dominions  extended 
from  Thapsacus  on  the  Euphrates  to  Gaza,  and  south- 
wards as  far  as  the  Red  Sea. 

Mountains:  the  two  chains  of  Lebanon  [Libanon : 
jlifluvos],  which  is  10,000  feet  high,  and  clothed  with  a 
forest  of  cedars.  At  a  later  period,  this  range  was  divided 
into  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  [Herman],  between  which  B 
lies  the  valley  of  the  Leontes,  or  the  ancient  Coele-Syria, 
with  the  ruins  of  Baalbeck. 

The  northern  part  of  Palestine,  afterwards  called  Galilee,  forms 
a  table-land,  on  the  southern  side  of  which  rises  Mount  Tabor; 
thence  the  traveller  towards  the  south  descends  into  a  small  plain 
(Jezreel).  The  centre  of  the  country  is  traversed  by  the  moun- 
tains of  Ephraim,  the  southern  by  those  of  Juda,  and  the 
eastern  by  those  of  Gilead. 

Waters.  The  Mediterranean  (in  the  Bible  the  Great 
Sea).  The  lakes  of  Merom  (or  Samochonitis),  andc 
Genezareth,  or  the  Sea  of  Galilee;  the  Dead  Sea  (so 
called,  because,  as  it  is  said,  no  living  being  can  exist  in 
it,  or  on  its  surface),  or  Lacus  Asphaltites  (on  account  of 
the  bitumen  or  asphalt  found  there),  or  Salt  Sea  (on  ac- 
count of  the  unusual  saltness  of  its  waters).  This  body  of 
water  owes  its  origin  to  the  judgment  which  overwhelmed 
the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (with  Adama,  Zeboim, 
and  Bela),  and  changed  the  fruitful  valley  of  Siddim  into  a 
lake.  The  river  Jordan  rises  from  three  sources  in  the  D 
Anti-Lebanon,  and  flowing  through  a  valley  formed  by  a 
wall  of  rocks  on  each  side,  finally  loses  itself  in  the  Dead 
Sea.  Before  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  it 
seems  to  have  discharged  its  waters  into  the  Atlantic. 

Climate.  As  the  soil  of  Palestine  comprehends  within 
a  small  area  almost  all  the  formations  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, from  the  bright  lively  chalk  to  the  black  basalt ;  so 
does  it  possess  every  variety  of  climate,  from  the  tropical 
temperature  of  the  valley  of  Jordan,  on  the  banks  of  the 
lake  Genezareth,  to  the  cold  and  raw  atmosphere  of  the 
heights  of  Lebanon.  By  this  great  variety  of  climate  a 
gradation  of  vegetable  life  is  created,  ascending  regularly 


10  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  [10. 

(10)  from  the  stunted  productions  of  colder  climates,  to  the 
A.  palm-trees  and  tropical  fruits  of  the  south. 

Agriculture  and  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  as  well  as  the  growth 
of  fruit  (especially  figs  and  olives),  and  the  rearing  of  silk-worms 
once  flourished  extensively  in  Palestine  ;  and,  in  conjunction  with 
pasturage  and  the  keeping  of  bees,  formed  the  chief  wealth  of  the 
inhabitants.  Forests  of  cedars,  cypresses,  palms,  and  oaks,  furnished 
wood  for  building,  whilst  salt  was  supplied  abundantly  by  the  Dead 
Sea. — The  scourge  of  Palestine  was  its  swarms  of  locusts.  . 

Its  divisions  were  various  at  different  times.  Joshua 
B  portioned  out  the  land  among  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel 
(Judah,  Simeon,  Benjamin,  Dan,  Ephraim,  Manasseh, 
Issachar,  Zebulon,  Asher,  Naphtali,  Gad,  and  Reuben),  and 
after  the  death  of  Solomon,  it  was  divided  into  the  king- 
doms of  Israel  and  Judah.  In  our  Saviour's  time,  a  dis- 
tinction existed  between  the  parts  on  this  side  Jordan 
(Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Galilee),  and  on  the  other  side 
(Peraea). 

CITIES 

In  Judaa.  1.  JERUSALEM  or  Salem,  originally  Jebus, 
c  the  capital  of  the  Jebusites ;  in  the  Bible  Jeruschalaim, 
-lit  'legoaolvfta  (in  Herodotus  Kadvng  ?)  ;  from  the  time  of 
Hadrian  jElia  Capitolina,  and  Jerusalem  again  under  Con- 
stantine  the  Great ;  the  chief  city  of  Judaea,  and,  since  the 
days  of  King  David,  capital  of  the  whole  country,  was 
situated  on  four  hills,  viz.,  Zion,  the  southernmost  and 
loftiest,  on  which  a  fortress  was  erected  by  David ;  Mori  a 
[Moriah],  where  Solomon  built  the  temple;  Akra  (so 
named  from  the  castle  built  on  it  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes), 
and  at  a  later  period  Bezetha.  The  city  was  surrounded 
D  with  a  triple  wall,  strengthened  by  towers.  2.  BETHLEHEM, 
southward  of  Jerusalem,  a  mountain  city,  the  birth-place  of 
David  and  of  our  Blessed  Saviour.  3.  JERICHO,  destroyed 
by  Joshua,  and  restored  by  David,  the  seat  of  the  "  schools 
of  the  prophets."  4.  On  the  coast  the  sea-port  of  Japho 
or  JOPPA  (Jaffa). 

To  Judaea  belonged  also  the  cities  of  the  Philistines,  who  were 
subject  for  a  short  time  to  the  Israelites ;  viz.,  Gaza  on  the  coast, 
Askalon,  and  Ashdod  (seat  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  Dagon). 

In  Samaria.  1.  SAMARIA  (Schomron),  sometime  capi- 
tal of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  destroyed  by  Shalmanesar  in 
722,  and  afterwards  rebuilt.  2.  SICHEM,  where  the  Ten 


11.]  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  11 

Tribes  revolted  under  Jeroboam,  who  fixed  his  residence  (10) 
there.     It  was  afterwards  the  chief  city  of  the  Samaritans.  A 
3.  SILO  PS/1,: !oh~\  ;  where  the  tabernacle  of  the  Lord  rested 
from  the  days  of  Joshua  to  Samuel. 

In  Galilee.  CANA,  where  our  Lord  wrought  his  first 
miracle  at  the  marriage-feast ;  NAZARETH,  where  He  was 
brought  up;  CAPERNAUM,  his  usual  place  of  residence. 
There  were  no  very  remarkable  cities  in  Perwa. 

§  6.     HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 

I.     From  Adam  to  Noah. 
(1656  years  according  to  the  Hebrew  chronology.) 

The  Bible  teaches  us,  that  God1  created  (probably  il 
about  4000  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ)  a  pair  of  B 
human  beings,  Adam  and  Eve,  whom  He  placed  in  a 
garden,  named  Eden,  the  situation  of  which  it  is  impos- 
sible now  to  ascertain.  Here  they  continued  to  dwell, 
until,  having  fallen  by  an  act  of  disobedience  from  their 
state  of  innocence  ('  the  FalV),  they  were  expelled  from 
Paradise,  and  man  was  condemned  to  earn  his  bread  by 
the  sweat  of  his  brow.  But  this  sentence  was  accom- 
panied by  a  positive  but  indefinite  promise,  that  some 
*  seed  of  the  woman '  should  accomplish,  though  not  with- 
out difficulty  and  suffering,  a  final  victory  over  sin  and 
the  personal  Spirit  of  evil  who  had  tempted  him  to  his  c 
fall.  We  learn  from  the  Bible  history  that  the  sons  of 
Adam  employed  themselves  in  agriculture  and  the  feed- 
ing of  cattle;  and  that  they  offered  sacrifice,  a  rite 
which  afterwards  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  ancient 
world,  and  was  probably  of  Divine  appointment.8  The 
union  of  the  first  family  was  soon  dissolved  by  the 
murder  of  Abel  by  his  brother  Cain,  and  the  flight  of 

1  Chronologists  have  found  it  difficult  to  agree  upon  this  date. 
The  Hebrew  text,  according  t<?  Moreri,  gives  4003  B.  c.  as  the  date 
of  the  creation.    Usher,  4004,  which  is  generally  adopted  by  English 
writers.     The  Septuagint,  according  to  Riccioli,  5634.    The  Vulgate, 
according  to  Riccioli,  4184.     Petavius  (in  Strauchius),  3983.      The 
Benedictines,  in  the  Art  of  verifying  dates,  4963.     The  deluge — He- 
brew and  Vulgate,  1656  ;  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  1307  ;  Greek,  2262. 

2  [Sacrifices  of  expiation  were  commanded  the  Jews,  and  obtained 
among  most  other  nations,  from  tradition,  whose  original  probably 
was  revelation. — Bp.  Sutler,  Anal.  ii.  5.] 


12  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  [12. 

(11)  the  fratricide  into  the  land  of  Nod  (i.  e.  of  banishment), 
A  where  he  built  the  first  city.  The  posterity  of  Cain, 
whose  wickedness  had  filled  the  earth  with  murder  and 
violence,  were  destroyed,  together  with  most  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Seth  (Adam's  third  son),  by  the  waters  of  a 
Flood.  The  Bible  account  of  this  visitation  is  confirmed 
by  the  traditions  of  other  ancient  nations,  as  well  as  by  the 
history  of  the  earth  itself.  None  escaped  this  destruction 
except  righteous  Noah,  his  wife,  and  their  three  sons 
(Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth),  with  their  wives,  in  all  eight 
B  persons.  These  were  saved  in  the  Ark,  which  finally 
rested  on  Mount  Ararat;  and  thus  the  human  race  a 
second  time  sprang  from  a  single  family. 

II.  From  Noah  to  Abraham. 

v.  Goguet,  Origin  of  Laws,  &c.,  among  Ancient  Nations. 
(B.  c.  2300—2000.) 

12  The  rapid  increase  of  Noah's  descendants  compelled 
them  to  settle  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  in  the  fruit- 
ful plain  of  Shinar  (Babylon). — Building  of  the  tower  of 

c  Babel.  Dispersion  of  Noah's  posterity. — The  Shemifcs 
(or  descendants  of  Shem)  spread  themselves  over  Asia, 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Oxus  ;  north-western  Asia, 
and  Europe  were  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  Japheth  ; 
Africa  and  a  portion  of  south-eastern  Asia1  by  the  chil- 
dren of  Ham.  In  consequence  of  the  universal  degeneracy 
of  Noah's  posterity  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the  one 
true  God  were  entirely  lost,  except  in  the  family  of  Abra- 
ham, a  descendant  of  Seth  in  the  taith  generation,  who, 
being  called  by  God,  received  from  Him  a  command  to 

D  leave  his  own  country  and  kindred,  and  seek  for  a  new 
home  in  a  land,  the  very  name  of  which  was  not  to  be 
declared  to  him  till  a  future  time.  He  was  required  to 
act  in  faith,  the  command  being  enforced  by  a  promise, 
that  his  obedience  should  be  rewarded  by  his  being  made 
the  father  of  a  great  nation,  from  which  a  blessing  should 
be  conveyed  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The  faith  of 
the  patriarch  was  equal  to  the  trial :  he  quitted  the  land 
of  his  fathers  (Ur  oftJie  Chaldees),  "  not  knowing  whither 
he  went ;"  and  from  this  time  the  original  promise  of  a 

1  [Apparently  the  coasts  of  Arabia  and  the  Persian  gulf] 


13.]  ASIA. — THE    ISRAELITES.  13 

Saviour  was  limited,  and  thus  rendered  more  definite  by  (12) 
the  added  specification,  that  He  should  proceed  from  the  A 
family  of  Abraham. 

III.     From  Abraham  to  the  Conquest  of  Palestine. 
(B.  c.  2000—1500.) 

Abraham,  who  was  called,  by  the  native  Canaanites,  13 
Hebri,  i.  e.  '  the  man  from  the  other  side  '  (hence  the 
term  Hebrews),  had  entered  their  country  (the  land  of 
Canaan)  in  company  with  his  nephew  Lot ;  but  the  rapid 
increase  of  their  flocks  and  herds  soon  compelled  them  to  B 
separate.  Lot,  to  whom  Abraham  granted  the  privilege 
of  choosing  his  future  abode,  settled  in  the  valley  of  Sid- 
dim,  the  rich  and  well-watered  plain  of  the  Jordan.  The 
inhabitants  of  its  cities,  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  were  so 
terribly  wicked,  that  the  Lord  rained  fire  and  brimstone 
upon  them  from  heaven,  showing  at  the  same  time  his 
power  to  deliver  the  godly  out  of  temptation  by  preserving 
righteous  Lot.  When  these  guilty  cities  were  overthrown, 
the  plain  in  which  they  stood  became  the  Dead  Sea.  Lot 
escaped  into  the  mountains  with  his  daughters,  who  (by  c 
incestuous  intercourse  with  their  father,  whom  they  had 
made  drunk  with  wine)  gave  birth  to  Moab  and  Ben-Ammi, 
the  ancestors  of  the  idolatrous  Moabites  and  Ammonites. 

On  the  other  hand,  Abraham,  who,  on  account  of  the 
barrenness  of  his  wife  Sarah,  had  had  a  son  (Ishmael)  by 
her  handmaid  Hagar,  received  a  promise  that  Sarah,  in 
her  old  age,  should  have  a  son.  Accordingly  he  became 
the  father  of  Isaac,  i  the  son  of  promise  ;'  and,  as  a  reward 
for  a  great  and  mysterious  trial  of  his  faith,  when  he  pre- 
pared to  sacrifice  this  son  at  the  command  of  God,  was  D 
admitted  to  a  more  intimate  communion  with  the  Almighty 
by  the  establishment  of  a  covenant,  into  which  every  male 
of  his  race  was  thenceforward  to  be  incorporated  by 
circumcision.  Ishmael,  with  his  mother  Hagar  (who 
had  justly  offended  Sarah  by  her  mocking  behavior  on  the 
festival  of  Isaac's  weaning),  had  been  driven  forth  into  the 
Arabian  desert  at  the  request  of  Sarah,  but  with  the  per- 
mission of  God.  Isaac  became  the  heir  of  his  father's 
possessions,  and  having  married  Rebekah  (the  daughter  of 
Abraham's  brother,  Nahor),  begat  twin  sons,  Esau  (or 
Edom)  and  Jacob,  afterwards  named  Israel. 

Esau,  having  profanely  sold  his  birthright  to  his  bro- 


14  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  [13. 

(13)  ther,  travelled  towards  the  south,  and  became  the  founder 

A  of  a  commercial  race  named  Edomites  (Idum&ans}, 

After  Isaac's  death,  Jacob  became  the  head  of  the 
Israelitish  family,  and  continued  to  lead  a  pastoral  life, 
being  assisted  in  the  care  of  his  flocks  and  herds  by  his 
twelve  sons.  His  favorite  son,  Joseph,  was  sold  by  his 
envious  brethren  to  a  caravan  of  Ishmaelites,  who  carried 
him  into  Egypt,  where  he  became  the  property  of  Poti- 
phar,  and  was  thrown  into  prison  in  consequence  of  a  false 
accusation  brought  against  him  by  his  master's  wife. 

B  Having  interpreted  the  dreams  of  Pharaoh,  he  was  created 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  after  severely  proving  his  brethren, 
who  had  come  down  from  Canaan  to  buy  corn,  at  last  dis- 
covered himself  to  them.  By  the  invitation  of  his  son, 
Jacob  migrated  with  his  whole  family  into  Lower  Egypt, 
where  he  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Goshen.  After  residing 
there  430  years, '  the  Israelites  (now  a  considerable  nation, 
numbering  600,000  fighting  men)  quitted  Egypt  under  the 
command  of  MOSES.  This  leader  (a  descendant  of  Levi) 
had  been  exposed  when  an  infant  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 

c  in  consequence  of  a  command  issued  by  Pharaoh  that  all 
the  first-born  male  children  of  the  Israelites  should  be 
destroyed.  Being  rescued  from  the  waters  by  Pharaoh's 
daughter  (hence  his  name),  he  was  given  to  his  own  mother 
to  be  nursed,  and  as  he  grew  up  received  instruction  in  all 
the  learning  of  the  Egyptians.  Having  slain  an  Egyptian, 
who  was  persecuting  one  of  his  brethren,  the  children  of 
Israel,  he  fled  for  safety  to  the  country  of  the  Midianites, 
in  Arabia,  where  Jehovah  appeared  to  him  in  the  midst  of 
a  burning  bush  on  Mount  Horeb,  and  commanded  him  to 

D  return  and  conduct  the  people  from  Egypt  into  the  land  of 
Canaan.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother  Aaron,  he  endea- 
vored to  obtain  from  Pharaoh  permission  for  the  people 
to  make  a  three  days'  journey  into  the  wilderness,  that 
they  might  sacrifice  to  the  Lord  their  God  :  but  Pharaoh's 
heart  was  hardened,  so  that  he  refused  to  let  them  go, 
until  his  land  had  been  visited  by  ten  miraculous  plagues. 
The  army  of  the  Israelites,  guided  by  a  pillar  of  a  cloud 
by  day  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night,  marched  through  the 
Arabian  gulf  (God  having  first  "caused  the  waters  to  go 
back  by  a  strong  east  wind"  and  then  to  return  and  over- 

1  So  Piitz  :  but  the  430  years  are  to  be  reckoned  from  the  promise 
in  Gen.  xv.  to  the  Exode. 


14.]  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  15 

whelm  their  pursuers)  towards  Mount  Sinai,  in  Arabia,  (13) 
where  Moses  delivered   to  the   people  a  code  of  laws,  A 
written  by  the   finger  of  God  Himself.     God  punished 
their  faithlessness  and  disobedience  by  condemning  them  to 
wander  forty  years  in  the  wilderness :  after  which  they 
conquered  the  whole  of  Palestine  as  far  as  the  river  Jor- 
dan.    Aaron  and  Moses,  having  on  one  occasion  failed  to 
sanctify  Jehovah  before  the  people,  were  not  permitted  to 
enter  the  promised  land,  but  died  before  the  children  of 
Israel  crossed  the  river.1 

The  MOSAIC  LAWS,  by  which  the  Jewish  people  were  to  be  go-  14 
verned,  were  given  to  Moses  by  God  Himself,  especially  the  two  B 
tables  of  stone  on  which  the  Ten  Commandments  were  engraven, 
and  the  pattern  of  the  tabernacle,  with  its  furniture  and  ordinances 
of  worship.  It  contained,  however,  many  confirmations  of  ancient 
patriarchal  usages  (such  as  the  worship  of  one  God  by  means  of 
sacrifices,  prayers,  and  vows,  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  circum- 
cision, oaths,  the  avenging  of  blood,  and  the  patriarchal  life  under 
the  government  of  heads  of  tribes  and  fathers  of  families) :  and 
some  of  the  political  and  domestic  institutions  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  Egyptians.  The  laws  were — 

1.  RELIGIOUS.  The  worship  of  one  God,  Jehovah,  as  King  of  his 
chosen  people.  It  was  forbidden  to  make  any  visible  representation  c 
of  the  Almighty  ;  but  his  presence  was  indicated  by  the  cloud  which 
rested  on  the  mercy-seat  in  the  tabernacle.  This  tabernacle  was  a 
portable  tent,  consisting  of  a  court  and  the  sanctuary,  properly  so 
called,  the  innermost  division  of  which  (the  Holy  of  Holies)  con- 
tained the  ark  of  the  covenant  with  the  Ten  Commandments  en- 
graven on  two  tables  of  stone.  The  tribe  of  Levi  (to  which  Moses 
belonged)  were  charged  with  the  administration  of  every  thing 
relating  to  public  worship,  but  the  priesthood  itself  was  confined  to 
the  descendants  of  Aaron  ;  the  head  of  the  family  for  the  time  being 
having  the  title  of  high  priest,  and  acting  at  the  same  time  as  head 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi  and  spiritual  chief  of  the  whole  nation.  All 
duties  connected  with  the  worship  of  God,  unless  expressly  reserved  D 
to  the  priests,  were  performed  by  the  Levites,  with  the  exception  of 
the  lowest  offices,  which  were  discharged  by  the  slaves  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. They  were  also  required  to  transcribe  and  explain  the  books 
of  the  law,  administer  justice,  and  conduct  the  registration  of  the 
tribes ;  and  were  generally  versed  in  all  the  scientific  learning  of 
those  days.  They  dwelt  in  forty-eight  cities,  dispersed  among  all 
the  tribes,  and  were  not  allowed  to  possess  any  property,  but  re- 
ceived a  tenth  part  of  the  possessions  of  the  other  tribes  (the  tithe 
of  which  they  again  gave  to  the  priests),  besides  a  share  of  the 
beasts  offered  in  sacrifice,  the  firstlings  of  the  flock  and  the  first  fruits  of 
the  land.  The  high  priest  was  also  supreme  judge,  and  had  the 
privilege  of  inquiring  the  will  of  God.  He  entered  the  Holy  of 

1  Before  his  death,  Moses,  by  God's  direction,  nominated  Joshua 
to  succeed  him  as  the  leader  of  the  people. 
2* 


16  ASIA. — THE    ISRAELITES.  [14. 

(14)  Holies  once  a  year,  on  the  great  Day  of  Atonement,  to  offer  sacrifice 

A  for  his  own  sins  and  the  sins  of  the  people.  In  order  to  fix  in  the 
minds  of  the  children  of  Israel  a  perpetual  remembrance  of  their 
dependence  on  the  Divine  Ruler  of  their  nation,  periodical  feasts 
were  appointed  by  the  Mosaic  law.  To  remind  them  that  their 
persons  and  property  belonged  to  God,  their  bodies  were  to  rest 
every  seventh  day,  or  Sabbath  (as  a  memorial  also  of  the  rest 
of  God  on  that  day  from  the  work  of  creation),  and  their  land 
every  seventh  or  Sabbatical  Year ;  and  at  the  end  of  seven  times 
seven  years,  or  the  year  of  Jubilee,  all  contracts  for  the  possession  of 
person  or  property  were  cancelled,  domestic  slaves  emancipated,  and 
lands  which  had  been  sold  or  pledged,  were  restored,  with  the  neces- 

B  sary  farm  buildings,  to  their  original  owners.  Their  three  annual 
festivals,  at  which  all  the  males  were  required  to  visit  the  place 
where  the  ark  of  God  was  deposited,  were  partly  commemorative  of 
God's  wonderful  protection  of  his  people,  and  partly  seasons  of 
thanksgiving.  1.  Tiie  Passover  (Passah},  in  commemoration  of  the 
deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  Egyptian  slavery,  and  the  sparing  of 
their  first-born  by  the  destroying  angel  when  he  smote  the  first-born  of 
the  Egyptians.  2.  The  Feast  of  Weeks,  or  nevTEKoorr}  (fy/tpa),  a  thanks- 
giving for  the  delivery  of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai,  as  well  as  for  the 
commencement  of  harvest.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  a  festival 
commemorative  of  their  living  in  tents  and  booths  in  the  wilderness, 
and  a  thanksgiving  for  the  end  of  the  fruit  gathering  and  vintage. 
Their  dependence  on  Jehovah  was  also  especially  recalled  to  their 

C  minds  by  a  yearly  penitential  observance,  called  the  great  Day  of 
Atonement.  The  new  moon  of  the  seventh  month,  or  beginning  of  the 
civil  year,  was  likewise  a  festival,  and  was  announced  by  sound  of 
trumpet,  whence  it  was  denominated  the  Feast  of  Trumpets.  The 
sacrifices,  which  were  all  offered  up  on  an  altar  in  the  court  of  the 
Tabernacle,  and  afterwards  of  the  Temple,  were  either  bloody,  consist- 
ing of  clean  beasts  without  spot  or  blemish  (oxen,  goats,  sheep,  and 
doves),  or  unbloody,  such  as  meats,  drink-offerings,  and  the  daily 
offerings  of  incense.  Besides  these  sacrifices,  the  Israelites  were 
required  to  bring  before  the  Lord  the  first-born  of  beasts,  and  the 
first  fruits  of  their  fields  and  vineyards,  as  well  as  a  double  tithe 
(half  for  the  Levites,  and  the  other  half  to  form  a  fund  for  the 
expenses  of  sacrificial  feasts,  hospitality  to  strangers,  and  relief  of 

D  the  poor).  Among  their  religious  observances  may  also  be  classed 
vows,  prayers,  circumcision,  and  the  purification  of  the  unclean. 

2.  CIVIL.  Their  political  constitution  was  a  Theocracy.  The  peo- 
ple were  divided  into  twelve  tribes,  which  were  governed  by  heads  of 
tribes  and  families  (named  elders},  and  formed  each  a  small  republic : 
but  the  whole  nation  was  subject  to  the  dominion  of  the  invisible 
Jehovah,  who  governed  by  his  visible  representative  the  High  Priest, 
assisted  by  the  priests  and  prophets.  On  extraordinary  occasions 
the  people  were  all  called  together  to  decide  questions  of  peace,  war, 
alliances,  &c.,  and  to  elect  leaders.  We  find,  also,  in  the  Mosaic 
law  special  provisions  for  the  case  (which  afterwards  occurred)  of 
the  people  desiring  to  choose  a  king. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE.  After  the  conquest  of  Palestine  a 
judge,  chosen  generally  from  the  tribe  of  Levi  by  the  heads  of 
families  and  tribes,  was  stationed  in  every  city.  The  punishments 


15.]  ASIA. — THE    ISRAELITES.  17 

were,  death,  inflicted  for  offences  against  the  Theocracy,  such  as  (14) 
idolatry,  desecration  of  holy  usages,  blasphemy,  prophesying  falsely,  ^ 
&c.  All  crimes  of  this  description  were  punished  with  death  by  the 
sword  or  stoning,  as  acts  of  high  treason  against  the  Sovereign  Ruler 
of  the  nation.  The  same  punishment  was  also  inflicted  for  murder, 
robbery  of  an  Israelite,  adultery,  incest,  and  cursing  or  ill-treating 
parents.  Corporal  punishment  (stripes)  ;  fines  (for  theft  and  defama- 
tion) ;  ecclesiastical  penalties  (sacrifices).  Moses  appointed  three 
cities  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan,  to  which  the  slayer,  who  had 
killed  his  neighbor  without  malice  prepense,  might  flee  from  the 
avenger  of  blood. 

WAR.  Every  free  citizen  who  had  attained  the  age  of  twenty 
years  was  required  to  serve  in  the  army,  which  was  divided  into 
battalions  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  tribes,  each  tribe 
being  commanded  by  its  own  heads  and  fathers  of  families.  Terms  B 
of  capitulation  were  to  be  offered  to  besieged  places,  but  if  these 
were  refused,  and  the  city  taken  by  storm,  all  the  male  inhabitants 
were  put  to  death. 

DOMESTIC  LIFE.  For  the  avoidance  of  idolatry,  the  people  were 
commanded  to  separate  themselves  strictly  from  foreign  nations 
(with  the  exception  of  their  relatives  the  Edomites  and  the  Egyp- 
tians), and  to  root  out  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine.  They 
were  required  to  lead  a  peaceful  life  within  their  own  borders,  main- 
taining themselves  by  agriculture  and  pasturage,  and  neither  seeking 
to  enrich  themselves  by  commerce,  nor  attempting  to  extend  their 
territory  by  conquest.  Kindness  to  the  poor,  widows  and  orphans,  C 
justice  to  the  hired  laborer,  and  gentle  treatment  of  their  slaves,  and 
even  of  beasts,  were  strictly  enjoined  by  the  Law. 

The  commission  of  J  o  s  h  u  a  was  ratified  by  the  miracu- 
lous interposition  of  Jehovah,  who  caused  the  waters  of 
Jordan  to  retire  at  the  first  touch  of  the  priests'  feet,  and 
the  walls  of  Jericho  to  fall  down  before  the  people  of 
God.  This  leader  subdued  thirty-one  princes  of  the  Ca- 
naanites,  and  consequently  made  himself  master  of  the 
whole  land,  which  he  divided  among  the  twelve  tribes, 
ten  of  which  were  named  after  the  sons  of  Jacob  (with  the 
exception  of  Levi  and  Joseph),  and  two  after  Manassek  D 
and  Ephraim,  the  sons  of  Joseph.  The  Levites  occupied 
forty-eight  cities. 

IV.     From  the  Conquest  of  Palestine  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Monarchy.     Period  of  the  Judges. 

(B.  c.  1500—1100.) 

The  twelve  tribes,  each  under  its  own   prince,  were  15 
united  into  one  federal  commonwealth  by  their  worship  of 
Jehovah  (the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh),  and  their  common  in- 
terest in  the  priestly  race  and  the  high  priesthood,  which 


18  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  [10. 

(15)  was  hereditary  in  Aaron's  family,  as  well  as  by  the  Mosaic 

A  law  and  their  general  assembly  (at  Sichem). 

The  command  of  God,  speaking  by  his  servant  Moses, 
to  root  out  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land,  had  been  in 
a  great  measure  disregarded;  and  the  people  not  only 
contracted  marriages  with  the  Canaanites,  but  added  the 
idolatrous  rites  of  their  neighbors  to  the  worship  of 
Jehovah.  These  transgressions,  the  envious  feeling  of 
the  weaker  tribes  towards  the  stronger,  and  their  conflicts, 
generally  disastrous,  with  their  neighbors,  the  Philistines, 

B  Edomites,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  and  Moabites,  to  whom 
the  Israelites  were  alternately  either  subject  or  tributary, 
would  have  put  an  end  to  the  commonwealth,  had  not  indi- 
vidual heroes  (JUDGES,  such  as  Gideon,  Jepht hah,  Sam- 
son, and  Eli)  been  raised  up  by  God  in  the  time  of  their 
sorest  need  to  rescue  the  nation  from  complete  subjection. 
When,  however,  the  sons  of  Samuel  (a  Judge,  and  the 
founder  of  a  School  of  Prophets,  in  which  the  young 
Israelites  were  instructed  in  the  laws,  religion,  and  music), 
who  had  been  admitted  by  their  father  as  his  coadjutors  in 

c  the  priestly  office,  were  known  to  have  accepted  bribes, 
the  people,  forgetting  that  God  was  their  King,  persuaded 
themselves  that  a  union  of  the  tribes  under  a  single  head 
would  insure  them  more  unanimity  among  themselves,  and 
greater  security  against  their  enemies.  Accordingly,  they 
desired  to  have  a  visible  king,  like  the  nations  around 
them.  Samuel  was  highly  displeased  at  this  request, 
which  he  justly  considered  an  act  of  rebellion  against  their 
Almighty  Sovereign ;  but  being  commanded  by  God  to 
accede  to  their  demand  (though  not  without  pointing  out 

D  to  them  its  sinful  character),  he  anointed  Saul,  the  son  of 
Kish,  a  Benjamite,  to  be  king  over  Israel. 

V.     From  the  establishment  of  the  Monarchy  to  the 
separation  of  the  two  kingdoms. 

(B.  c.  1095—975.) 

16  Saul,  after  obtaining  a  victory  over  the  Philistines,  re- 
ceived the  homage  of  the  Israelites  at  a  general  assembly, 
where  he  swore  to  observe  the  constitution  as  defined  by 
the  terms  of  his  compact  with  the  people  and  the  laws  of 
the  Jewish  nation.  After  this  he  subdued  the  remainder 
of  their  heathen  neighbors,  the  Philistines,  Moabites,  and 
Edomites,  and  rooted  out  the  Amalekites,  but,  in  defiance 


16.]  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  19 

of  Samuel's  prohibition,  spared  their  king  and  the  best  of  (16) 
the  cattle.     He  had  on  another  occasion  offered  sacrifice,  A 
in  profane  violation  of  God's  law  ;  and  for  these  acts  of 
disobedience    Samuel,    by    (rod's    command,    privately 
anointed  David,  of  Bethlehem  in  Judah  (a  young  man),  to 
be  the  future  king  of  Israel.     When  a  boy  he  had  kept  his 
father's  flocks,  but  had  been  admitted  at  the  court  of  Saul 
as  a  player  on  the  harp  and  armor-bearer  to  Jonathan, 
the  king's  son.     After  his  victory  over  the  giant  Goliath 
he  was  persecuted  by  the  jealousy  of  the  king,  and  took 
refuge  among  the   Philistines.     Saul,  being  deserted  by  B 
God,  ended  his  life  by  falling  on  his  own  sword  after  a 
disastrous  conflict  with  the  Philistines,  in  which  three  of 
his  sons  were  slain. 

DAVID  then  returned  to  his  own  country,  and  was  at 
once  acknowledged  by  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  the  other 
eleven  tribes  declaring  in  favor  of  Ishbosheth,  the  son 
of  Saul,  who  was  put  to  death  eight  years  after  his 
accession,  when  David  became  king  of  all  Israel.  Having 
chosen  Jerusalem,  which  he  had  conquered  from  the  Jebu- 
sites,  to  be  the  royal  residence,  David  transferred  the  Ark  c 
of  the  Covenant  to  that  city,  and  built  a  magnificent  palace 
on  Mount  Zion,  by  the  aid  of  workmen  furnished  by  his 
ally  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre.  The  booty  taken  in  his  wars 
was  also  set  aside  to  meet  the  expenses  of  erecting  a 
Temple  which  he  desired  to  build,  but  was  commanded  by 
God  to  leave  the  execution  of  his  plan  to  his  peaceful 
successor.  By  the  subjugation  of  the  Moabites,  Edomites, 
and  Syrians  (of  Zoba  and  Damascus),  David  extended  his 
kingdom  eastward  as  far  as  Thapsacus  on  the  Euphrates, 
and  southward  to  the  Arabian  gulf.  At  the  same  time  he  D 
took  measures  for  the  regular  administration  of  his  enlarged 
dominions,  surrounded  himself  with  a  brilliant  court  and  a 
body  guard  (Krethi  and  Plethi),  appointed  ministers  and 
officers  for  the  administration  of  justice  and  military  affairs, 
divided  the  company  of  priests  and  Levites  into  courses, 
gave  a  more  settled  form  and  greater  magnificence  to  pub- 
lic worship,  maintained  a  standing  army  of  300,000  men 
in  twelve  divisions,  each  of  which  remained  in  turn  a 
month  under  arms,  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with 
Hiram  of  Tyre,  &c. 

Deep   religious   feeling   and   unshaken   confidence   in 
the  Almighty  were  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 


20  ASIA. — THE    ISRAELITES.  [17. 

(16)  David,  whose  fervent  spirit  of  devotion  is  displayed  in  the 

A  Psalms.  Under  the  influence  of  passion  he  committed  two 
grievous  sins  (the  seduction  of  Bathsheba  and  murder  of 
Uriah),  of  which  he  sincerely  and  bitterly  repented.  On 
this  repentance  he  was  himself  pardoned  ;  but  because  he 
had  given  occasion  to  the  enemies  of  the  Lord  to  blas- 
pheme, a  sentence  of  punishment  was  pronounced  against 
him,  that  the  sword  should  never  depart  from  his  house. 
His  son  Absalom,  who  had  deposed  his  father,  was  put  to 
death  by  the  commander-in-chief  (Joab)  as  he  hung  by 

B  the  hair  from  the  branches  of  an  oak.  A  short  time  before 
his  death  David  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  SOLOMON 
(the  son  of  Bathsheba),  who  had  been  educated  by  the 
prophet  Nathan. 

17  The  wisdom  of  Solomon,  which  was  renowned  through- 
out the  whole  eastern  world,  was  displayed  in  his  judicial 
decisions  (the  determining,  for  instance,  which  of  two 
claimants  was  the  true  mother  of  a  child),  proverbs,  of 
which  3000  are  extant,  songs  (1005),  and  enigmas.1  His 
great  work  was  the  erection  of  a  magnificent  national 

c  Temple,  and  the  establishment  of  a  splendid  ritual.  The 
Temple  was  finished  in  seven  years  by  artisans  from  Tyre, 
and  profusely  ornamented  with  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones.  The  building  was  divided  (like  the  Tabernacle) 
into  the  Holy  Place  and  Holy  of  Holies,  and  solemnly 
dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  Almighty  ;  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  being  brought  from  Zion  and  deposited  in  the 
sanctuary.  He  built  also  a  royal  palace,  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  several  cities  (as  Tadmor  or  Palmyra,  in  the 
Syrian  desert).  Solomon  renewed  the  commercial  league 

D  with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  and,  in  conjunction  with  him, 
sent  ships  from  the  Edomitic  harbors  of  Elath  and  Ezion- 
Geber  to  Ophir,  probably  an  emporium  on  the  Arabian 
gulf,*  and  to  Tarshish  (Tartessus  in  Spain  ?).  A  love  of 
magnificence  and  luxury  was  manifested  in  the  arrangements 
of  the  court,  the  sacrifices,  the  troops  of  strange  wives  and 
concubines  introduced  by  the  king  after  his  perversion  to 
idolatry,  and  the  vast  number  of  horses.  To  support  this 
extravagant  expenditure,  heavy  contributions  were  exacted 

1  The  hard  questions  in  which  the  Queen  of  Sheba  came  to  prove 
him  (1  Kings  x.  1). 

*  Kttlb  (Hist,  of  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  Africa,  i.)  suppose* 
Ophir  to  have  been  Sofala,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 


18,  19.]  ASIA. THE   ISRAELITES.  21 

from  the  people,  without  any  adequate  advantage  being  (17) 
gained  by  the  remoter  provinces.     A  conspiracy  was  in  A 
consequence   organized   by  Jeroboam    (of    the   tribe   of 
Ephraim),  who,  on  the  discovery  of  his  treason,  fled  into 
Egypt.   Syria  revolted,  and  the  Edomites  remained  merely 
as  tributaries  under  kings  of  their  own. 

REHOBOAM,  Solomon's  son,  having  rejected  a  petition  18 
for  an  alleviation  of  the  public  burdens,  ten  tribes  at 
once  chose  Jeroboam,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
only  the  southern  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  remaining 
faithful  to  Rehoboam  :  these  two  tribes  composed  the  king-  B 
dom  of  Judah.  This  political  separation  produced  also 
an  ecclesiastical  schism,  the  tribe  of  Levi remaining 
in  Judah  and  celebrating  the  worship  of  Jehovah  in  the 
national  temple,  whilst  the  tribes  of  Israel,  renouncing 
their  allegiance  to  the  priesthood  at  Jerusalem,  as  well  as 
to  the  throne  of  David,  with  its  promise  of  perpetual 
duration,  offered  sacrifices  on  the  high  places,  and  adopted 
very  generally  the  Egyptian  worship  of  beasts,  and  the 
adoration  of  the  Phoenician  idol  Baal. 

VI.     The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 

(FROM  B.  c.  975.) 

From  this  period  the  KINGDOM  OF  ISRAEL,  with  its  capi- 19 
tal  Samaria  (formerly  Sichem),  became  a  prey  to  intes-  c 
tine  commotions,  and  only  lasted  (under  nineteen  kings) 
until  the  year  B.  c.  722.  The  kings,  who  sought,  by 
favoring  foreign  idolatry,  to  prevent  the  people  from 
visiting  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  thus  to  render  the 
separation  of  the  two  kingdoms  permanent,  were  strenu- 
ously opposed  by  a  party  of  faithful  worshippers  of 
Jehovah,  headed  by  the  divinely-commissioned  prophets, 
Elijah,  Elisha,  &c.,  who  denounced  the  foreign  rites  and  D 
the  worship  of  the  high  places,  and  endeavored  to  re- 
establish the  connection  with  Judah.  These  struggles  pro- 
duced revolutions,  which  were  the  more  frequent,  because, 
since  the  revolt  of  the  tribes  from  the  chosen  family  of 
David,  the  right  of  their  kings  to  the  throne  had  no  better 
foundation  than  national  opinion.  Hence,  repeated  wars 
with  their  heathen  neighbors  (particularly  the  Syrians),  to 
which  they  were  urged  by  the  exhortations  of  the  prophets. 
The  Assyrian  king,  Tiglath-Pileser,  took  most  of  the  cities 
of  Israel  by  storm,  and  his  successor,  Shalmaneser,  put  an 


22  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  [20. 

(19)  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  after  the  surrender  of  Sama- 
A  ria  to  his  forces  in  722.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  were 
transported  to  the  interior  of  Asia,  and  their  place  in  Pales- 
tine supplied  by  Asiatic  colonists,  the  mixture  of  whom  with 
the  Israelites  at  home  produced  the  race  of  the  Samaritans. 
THE  KINGDOM  OF  JUDAH,  with  its  capital,  Jerusalem, 
lasted  from  B.  c.  975  to  586,  under  nineteen  kings  and  one 
queen  (Athaliah)  of  the  house  of  David,  most  of  whom 
supported  the  Aaronic  priesthood,  and  maintained  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  but  there  were  some  who  persisted  in 
B  favoring  idolatry,  and  offering  sacrifices  on  the  high 
places,  in  defiance  of  the  rebukes,  warnings,  and  lamenta- 
tions of  the  prophets  (Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  &c.).  After  a  suc- 
cession of  wars,  for  the  most  part  disastrous,  with  the  king- 
dom of  Israel  and  their  heathen  neighbors,  Judah  became 
tributary  to  the  Assyrians  (who  had  formed  an  establish- 
ment in  the  adjoining  country  of  Israel),  and  at  a  later 
period  (after  the  death  of  Josiah,  who  fell  in  battle  against 
Pharaoh-Nechoh)  to  the  Egyptians  ;  and  lastly,  after  the 
overthrow  of  that  nation  at  Karkemisch  (Circesium),  to 
Babylon. 

c  Zedekiah,  who  had  been  placed  on  the  throne  by  the 
Babylonians,  having  rebelled,  Nebuchadnezzar  stormed 
Jerusalem,  B.  c.  586,  plundered  and  burnt  the  Temple,  and 
carried  off  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  to  Babylon, 
a  few  being  left  behind,  under  the  government  of  a  viceroy, 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  corn-land  and  vineyards. 

VII.     The  Israelites  under  the  rule  of  the  Persians. 

(B.  c.  538—332.) 

20  After  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  the  Jews  were 
D  not  only  permitted  by  that  sovereign  to  return  to  their  own 
land  after  an  exile  of  seventy  years,  but  were  presented 
with  the  treasures  which  had  been  plundered  from  their 
Temple,  protection  being  also  granted  to  them  for  the  re- 
storation of  the  building.  At  first,  however,  only  a  small 
body  of  the  exiles  (50,000)  returned  to  Palestine,  which 
now  formed  a  district  of  the  Persian  satrapy  of  Syria. 
The  administration  of  civil  affairs  was  left  by  the  satraps 
for  the  most  part  to  the  high  priest,  who  was  now,  for  the 
first  time  probably,  assisted  by  a  council  of  seventy -one 
elders.  During  the  reigns  of  Cambyses  and  Smerdis,  the 
building  of  the  temple  was  obstructed  by  the  Samaritans, 


21.]  ASIA. THE    ISRAELITES.  23 

who  had  been  excluded  from  a  participation  in  the  work,  (20) 
and  was  not  finally  completed  until  the  reign  of  Darius  I.  A 
The  Jewish  colony,   already  established  in  Judaea,  was 
joined  by  new  settlers  under  the  command  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah. 

§  7.  Literature,  Arts,  and  Sciences. 

LITERATURE. 

The  exclusive  and  sacred  character  of  the  divine  oracles  21 
was  naturally  an  impediment  to  the  growth  of  any  mere 
literature  among  the  Jews.     Before  the  exile  the  arts  of 
reading  and  writing  were  confined  to  but  a  few,  principally  B 
to  the  Priests,  Levites,  and  Prophets.    The  commandments 
of  God  and  the  miraculous  events  of  the  national  history 
were  communicated  orally  by  parents  to  their  children, 
whose  curiosity  their  religious  institutions  were  calculated 
and  intended  to  excite  (fteut.  vi.  7.  sqq.). 

POETRY. — The  poetry  of  the  Israelites  is  distinguished  by 
a  majestic  simplicity,  great  strength  of  expression,  elevation, 
and  originality.  It  differs  from  all  other  national  poetry, 
not  only  in  its  substance,  derived  from  divine  inspiration, 
and  filled  therefore  with  the  spirit  and  power  of  religious 
wisctorfif,  but  also  in  its  form,  being  constructed  without  c 
metre,  and  in  a  rhythm  which  consists  merely  of  a  corre- 
spondence in  the  length  and  structure  of  the  sentences,  that 
of  the  syllables  being  entirely  neglected.  Their  poems  are, 
1.  Lyrical,  like  the  Psalms  (almost  all  of  which  are  of  the 
time  of  David,  and,  generally  speaking,  his  own  composi- 
tions), and  the  Song  of  Solomon  ;  2.  Didactic,  either,  in 
short  detached  sentences,  like  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  or 
in  the  form  of  dialogues,  like  the  book  of  Job ;  3.  Lyrico- 
didactic,  like  the  Lamentations  and  prophecies  of  the  four 
greater  prophets  (Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel), 
and  the  twelve  lesser  ones.  v.  Lowth's  Hebrew  poetry. 

THE  ARTS. — There  was  no  opportunity  for  the  attainment  D 
of  architectural  excellence  among  the  Israelites,  since  they 
had  only  one  Temple  (built  by  Phoenician  architects),  the 
pattern  of  which  had  been  prescribed  by  God  Himself; 
nor  do  they  seem  to  have  possessed  any  other  public  build- 
ing worthy  of  notice.  Still  less  could  painting  and  sculp- 
ture flourish  among  a  people,  who,  being  forbidden  by 
their  religion  to  make  any  carved  or  molten  image  as  a 
representation  of  the  invisible  God,  were  restricted  to 
mere  decoration. 


24  ASIA.— INDIA.  [22,  23. 

(21)      On  the  other  hand,  music,  on  account  of  its  use  in  the 
A  Temple  worship,  especially  from  the  time  of  David,  seems 
to  have  attained  a  certain  degree  of  perfection. 

Their  trade  with  foreign  nations  was  intentionally 
prevented,  by  the  Mosaic  law  against  intercourse  with 
foreigners ;  at  a  later  period  its  development  was  impeded 
by  the  vicinity  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Arabians,  who  shared 
the  commerce  of  Asia  between  them  :  Palestine,  neverthe- 
less, exported  a  considerable  quantity  of  corn,  oil,  honey, 
and  balsam.  The  commerce  established  by  Solomon  in 
conjunction  with  Hiram  at  the  ports  of  Elath  and  Ezion- 
B  Geber  (which  had  been  added  to  his  dominions  by  David), 
ceased  with  the  loss  of  those  provinces.  Their  internal 
trade  was  more  important,  Jerusalem  being  the  scene  of 
an  animated  traffic  thrice  a  year  at  their  great  national 
Festivals. 

II.     The  Indians. 

22  Sources  of  information. — Neither  native  historians  nor  annalists. 
The  authorities  for  Indian  religion,  legislature,  and  literature,  are  the 
Vedag,  or  four  ancient  collections  of  religious  notices,  neither  be- 
longing to  one  time  nor  compiled  by  one  writer.     The  principal 

C  authority,  however,  on  legal  questions,  is  Manu's  (the  first  mortal, 
grandson  of  Brahma)  code  of  civil  laws,  a  compilation,  gradually 
formed,  of  written  or  traditionary  laws,  with*  an  immense  mass  or 
commentary.  Among  Greek  writers,  the  most  credible  accounts  are 
found  in  Herodotus  (iii.  94),  Strabo,  and  Claudius  Ptolemaeus.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  "Indica"  of  Ctesias  is  almost  entirely  fabulous, 
and  the  "  Indica "  of  Arrian,  with  many  fragments  from  the  ex- 
cellent accounts  of  Megasthenes  and  other  eye-witnesses,  contains 
also  a  great  deal  of  exaggeration,  introduced  for  the  sake  of  flatter- 
ing Alexander  the  Great.  Among  the  Roman  authorities  is  Pliny 
(Hist.  Nat.),  whose  account,  although  copious,  is  disfigured  by  his 
love  of  the  marvellous  and  exaggerated.  The  writings  of  Q.  Curtius 
contain  little  that  is  new  or  worthy  of  credit. 

D  The  best  general  view  will  be  found  in  Heeren's  Researches,  3d 
vol.  of  the  Eng.  tr.  v.  also  an  excellent  ch.  in  Eliot's  History  of  Ro- 
man Liberty,  Introd.  View,  ch.  2.  Ancient  ana  modern  India  are  so 
closely  connected  that  they  may  be  studied  together,  v.  Elphistone's 
Hist,  of  India,  2  vols. ;  Crawford's  Researches  concerning  the  Laws, 
Theology,  &c.,  of  Anc.  and  Mod.  India;  for  the  knowledge  the  an- 
cients had  of  India,  Robertson's  Hist.  Disquisition. 

§8.   Geography  of  Ancient  India. 

23  NAME  AND  BOUNDARIES. — The  name  of  INDIA,  which 
is  derived  from  the  river  Indus,  is  generally  employed  by 
Greek  and  Latin  writers  to  designate  the  countries  of  the 
South  generally,  but  most  frequently  southern  Arabia  and 


24 — 26.  §8.]  ASIA. — INDIA.  25 

Ethiopia.      The  later  division  into  India  intra  and  extra  (S3) 
Gangem,  although  still  inaccurate,  indicates  a  more  correct  A 
knowledge  of  the  country.      The  name  of  Hindostan, 
first  introduced  by  the  Mahometans,  is  given  to  the  tract 
of  country  lying  between  the  Indus  and  Burrampooter, 
and    between  the  Himalayan  mountains  and  the  Indian 
ocean. 

India,  in  the  centre  of  the  tropical  peninsula  of  southern  Asia,  24 
the  Italy  of  the  eastern  world,  the  goal  of  conquerors  and  settlers, 
the  emporium  of  the  world's  commerce,  the  exporter  to  all  climes 
and  in  all  ages  of  the  richest  productions  of  nature  (precious  stones 
and  spices),  extends  330  German  miles  in  breadth  (the  distance  from 
Bayonne  to  Constantinople),  and  400'  in  length  (that  of  Naples  from 
Archangel). 

FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY  AND  RIVERS. — The  continent  of  25 
India  consists  of  an  Alpine,  a  lowland,  and  a  highland  B 
district,  and  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  Asia  by  almost 
inaccessible  mountains.  1.  The  Alpine  district  is  in  the 
north,  between  the  Himalaya,  the  highest  point  of  which, 
the  Dhawalagiri  (i.  e.  Mont  Blanc)  stands  27,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  a  lower  chain  (7,000  feet 
in  height)  which  runs  along  the  skirts  of  the  valley.  2.  c 
The  Lowland  country  stretches  in  the  centre,  between  the 
Alpine  and  highland  districts,  in  the  form  of  a  triangle, 
from  the  bay  of  Bengal  to  the  Persian  gulf,  and  is  sepa- 
rated into  two  regions  of  very  opposite  character ;  viz.  the 
fertile  plain  of  the  sacred  Ganges  and  Burrampooter,  which 
unite  before  they  enter  the  sea,  and  forming  a  delta,  dis- 
charge their  waters  by  several  mouths  into  the  bay  of 
Bengal ;  and  the  plain,  for  the  most  part  barren  and  waste, 
of  the  Indus,  the  five  tributary  streams  of  which  (the 
Hydaspes,  Acesmes  (Aceslnus),  Hydraotes,  Hyphasis, 
and  Satadrus,)  water  the  Punjab,  or  land  of  the  five  rivers, 
which  is  fertile,  and  in  parts  well  cultivated.  3.  The  Table-  D 
land  of  Deccan,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  is 
a  uniform  triangular  peninsula,  the  eastern  and  western 
borders  of  which  are  formed  by  the  Ghaut  mountains, 
whilst  the  Vindhaya  range,  which  forms  its  northern 
boundary,  slopes  in  terraces  down  to  the  valley,  and  the 
middle  consists  of  one  unbroken  tract  of  table-land. 

THE   ISLANDS. — That   Ceylon   and   the    more    distant  26 

1  About  1200  and  1600  English  miles. 


26  ASIA. — INDIA.  [27 — 29.  §9. 

(26)  islands  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  as  Sumatra,  Java, 
A  Borneo,  Celebes,  &c.,  were  peopled  and  cultivated  by 
Hindu  tribes,  is  evident  from  the  Sanscrit  names  of  the 
mountains,  cities,  and  rivers,  and  the  complexion,  manners, 
and  institutions  of  the  islanders,  as  well  as  from  the  stu- 
pendous vestiges  of  Indian  architecture,  with  which  the 
islands  abound. 

27  PRODUCTIONS. — No  portion  of  the  earth  is  equal  perhaps 
in  the  riches  and  variety  of  its  productions  to  India,  which 
unites  the  characteristics  of  the  tropical  and  polar  regions. 

B  The  chief  of  these  productions  are — in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
the  cocoa-tree,  the  richest  spices  and  southern  fruits,  rice,  sugar,  all 
sorts  of  aromatic  woods,  cedar,  teak,  the  timber  of  which  is  almost 
imperishable,  the  cotton  shrub,  indigo,  the  sacred  banyan-tree,  and 
the  equally  hallowed  lotus — in  the  animal  kingdom,  buffaloes,  used 
for  draught  and  riding,  elephants,  lions,  tigers,  jackals,  large  wild 
dogs,  apes,  serpents,  peacocks,  parrots,  silk-worms,  and  innumerable 
insects — in  the  mineral  kingdom,  gold,  silver,  diamonds,  saltpetre,  &c. 

28  INHABITANTS. — The  Hindus,  of  Caucasian  race,  and  an 
aboriginal  negro  tribe,  the  Farias,  who  are  sometimes  to 
a  certain  extent  civilized,  but  as  frequently  savage,  living 
on  garbage,  and  sunk  into  the  lowest  state  of  degradation. 

c  The  dialect  in  which  the  classical  works  of  the  Indians  are 
written,  and  which  has  been  a  dead  language  since  the 
time  of  the  Mahometans,  is  called  Sanscrit  a,  i.e.  "the 
perfect,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  popular  dialects  which 
have  sprung  from  it,  and  which  bear  the  genera1,  name  of 
Prakrita  (common,  vulgar). 

§  9.  Fragments  of  the  Ancient  History  of  India. 

29  As  the  expeditions  of  Semiramis  and  Sesostris  belong  to 
D  legendary  lore,  little  is  known  respecting  the  history  of 

India  before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  beyond  the 
fact  that  certain  nations  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  were 
subdued  by  Darius  Hystaspes.  Alexander  the  Great 
found  several  kingdoms  already  existing  in  the  Punjab, 
some  of  which  he  restored,  after  his  conquest  of  the 
country,  to  their  former  kings  (as  Taxiles  and  Porus), 
and  placed  others  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Macedonian 
satraps.  His  successors  lost  the  Indian  provinces  during 
their  disputes  respecting  the  partition  of  the  kingdom, 
Sandrocottus,  king  of  the  Prasians  on  the  Ganges,  having 


30,  31.    §10.]  ASIA. INDIA.  27 

expelled   the    governors    appointed   by   Alexander,    and  (29) 
founded,  about  the  year  312,  an  empire,  which  extended  A 
from  the  Ganges  over  the  whole  of  the  Punjab,  and  a 
great  part  of  Aria,  Arachosia,  and  Gedrosia,  but  at  a  later 
period  was  first  circumscribed,  and  then  entirely  destroyed 
by  the  Bactrian  kings.     The  conquests  of  the  Bactrians  in 
India  were  soon  transferred  to  the  Parthians,  and  from 
them  to  the  Scythians,  who  were  utterly  defeated  by  the 
Indian   king,  Vikramadityas,    B.  c.  56,    and    the    Indo- 
Scythian  empire  broken  up.     Then  follows  another  period  B 
of  darkness  until  the  time  of  the  Mahometan  invasions 
(about  A.  D.  1000),  during  which  the  peace  of  southern 
India  seems  to  have  been  grievously  disturbed  by  the  re- 
ligious feuds  of  the  Brahmins  and  Buddhists. 

§  10.    Religion,  political  Condition,  Literature,  fyc.  of  ike 
ancient  Indians. 

1 .   RELIGION. 

The  Brahminical  system.      The  original  religion  of  the  30 
Indians  consisted  in  a  veneration  for  nature,  with  some  sort 
of  vague  acknowledgment  of  a  Supreme  Being.      This  c 
primary  cause  they  termed  Brahma,  and  honored  the  Sun 
as  his  representative  under  the  name  of  Brahman.      To- 
gether with  Brahmaism  there  arose  in  Northern  India 
two  forms   of  popular  worship, — the  fierce   Sivaism,  or 
worship  of  fire,  and  the  milder  system  of  Vishnu,  which 
venerated  water  and  air  as  the  great  elementary  powers. 

Their  three  great  deities,  Brahman,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  which  form 
the  Trinity  of  Indian  theology  (the  Trimurtis),  must  be  considered, 
like  all  their  other  gods,  as  nothing  more  than  personifications  of  the 
Supreme  Being's  power,  as  displayed  in  the  creation,  preservation, 
and  destruction  of  all  things.  The  will  of  God  that  the  world  should  D 
be  created  was  revealed  through  Brahman ;  that  it  should  continue 
to  exist  through  Vishnu,  and  that  the  works  of  creation  should  be 
destroyed  through  Siva.  Vishnu  ten  times  assumed  the  human  form, 
in  order  to  revive  the  expiring  virtue  of  mankind.  Their  religious 
observances  are, — prayers,  purifications,  sacrifices,  of  various  sorts, 
rejoicings  at  most  of  their  religious  festivals,  severe  penances,  and 
retirement  in  old  age,  generally  accompanied  by  ascetic  mortification 
of  the  body.  The  practice  of  burning  widows  prevails  only  among 
the  followers  of  Vishnu,  and  is  subject,  even  among  them,  to  many 
restrictions. 

The  Buddhist  Reformation  (about  B.  c.  1000).      The  31 
reformer  of  the  stern  Brahminical  system,  or  founder  of  the 


28  ASIA. — INDIA.  [32,  33.  §  10. 

(31)  milder  religion  of  Buddha,  was  Gautamas,  surnamed 
A  Buddhas,  i.  e.  the  Wise  (son  of  the  king  of  Magadha), 
who  seems  either  himself  to  have  given  out  that  he  was  an 
incarnation  of  the  god  Vishnu,  or  in  process  of  time  to 
have  passed  for  the  manifestation  of  that  deity  in  a  human 
form.  He  rejected  the  system  of  caste  (D)  ;  forbad  bloody 
sacrifices  and  the  burning  of  widows,  whom  he  permitted 
to  marry  again  ;  required  the  priests  to  lead  a  life  of  chas- 
tity, celibacy,  self-denial,  and  renunciation  of  all  worldly 
possessions :  a  system  which  led  to  the  establishment  of 
B  several  Buddhist  monasteries.  The  humane  and  tolerant 
worship  of  Buddha  had  spread  itself  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century  before  Christ  over  all  the  East  Indian  islands ;  and 
about  the  year  B.  c.  200  had  reached  China,  and  through 
the  emigrations  caused  by  the  intolerance  of  the  Brahmins, 
had  extended  as  far  as  Korea,  Japan,  Tibet,  and  Mongolin. 

32  2.    CONSTITUTION.      Their   form   of   government  was 
monarchical,  and  the  succession  to  the  throne  hereditary, 
according  to  priority  of  birth.      The  king  could  make 
grants  of  land  to  any  individual,  and  again  withdraw  them, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  priests,  whose  estates,  granted  to 
them  in  lieu  of  a  money  payment,  were  inviolable  and 

c  exempt  from  taxation.  In  accordance  with  this  practice, 
the  king  appointed  governors  over  the  larger  provinces,  who 
again  made  grants  of  the  smaller  districts  to  inferior 
officers  and  farmers,  on  condition  of  receiving  a  rent, 
which  varied  in  amount  according  to  the  times  and  circum- 
stances, and  of  being  furnished  in  time  of  war  with  a 
certain  contingent  of  young  men,  of  the  warrior  caste, 
capable  of  bearing  weapons. 

D  The  king,  sprung  from  this  caste,  seem  to  have  been  surrounded 
by  a  body  of  priests,  but  it  does  not  distinctly  appear  what  share 
they  had  in  the  government.  He  chose  his  ministers  from  the  caste 
of  Brahmins,  an&  took  counsel  with  his  senate  of  gray-haired  men  ; 
but  seems,  nevertheless,  to  have  acted  on  all  occasions  according  to 
his  own  discretion.  His  most  important  duty  was  the  administration 
of  justice  ;  for  which  purpose  a  court,  consisting  of  ten  learned  and 
aged  Brahmins,  was  established  in  each  province,  the  king  himself 
being  the  supreme  court  of  appeal. 

33  From  the  earliest  times  the  people  have  been  divided 
into  four  CASTES  : — 

a.  The  Brahmins  (i.  e.  descendants  and  worshippers  of 
Brahma),  who  are  sacred  and  inviolable,  more  highly  edu- 


34.    §  10.]  ASIA. INDIA.  29 

cated  than  the  other  castes,  exempt  from  taxation,  and  (33) 
subjected  to  less  severe  punishment  than  others  for  any  A 
violation  of  the  laws.     They  seem  to  be  highly  esteemed, 
and  to  exercise  considerable  influence  in  all  political  affairs. 
Only  a  fourth  part  of  the  caste  are  priests,  the  remainder 
being  employed  as  teachers,  judges,  physicians,  or  in  some 
other  honorable  office. 

b.  The   Warrior-caste — Kshatriyas  (i.  e.  averters  of 
devastation).     The  king  must  be  of  this  caste. 

c.  The  Visas  (i.  e.  inhabitants),  the  agricultural  and 
trading  caste. 

d.  The  Sudras  (i.  e.  fugitives) ;  the  people  properly  so  B 
called,  divided  into  guilds,  and  employed  in  a  variety  of 
trades,  manufactures,  arts,  and  even  in  commerce.     They 
are  excluded  from  reading  and  hearing  the  Vedas,  but  are 
not  considered  altogether  unclean,  like  the  Farias. 

3.  LITERATURE. — The  literature  of  the  ancient  Indians,  34 
the  extent  of  which  has  not  yet  been  fully  ascertained, 
consists  of — 

a.  Their  sacred  writings,  comprehended  under  the  title 
of  Sdstra  (i.  e.  the  guide,  the   law),  and  divided  into 
eighteen  classes.     At  the  head  of  these  stand  the  fourc 
Vedas,  with  their  numerous  commentaries  and  explana- 
tions.    The  remainder  treats  of  various  arts  and  sciences 
(music,  dancing,  military  tactics,  mechanical  arts,  gram- 
mar, and  lexicography,  religious  usages,  and  astronomy, 
legislation,   philosophy,    &c.),    and   concludes    with    the 
Puranas  or  antiquities,  and  the  religious  Epopee. 

The  practical  sciences,  such  as  geography,  natural  philosophy,  and 
medicine,  seem  to  have  been  in  their  infancy  among  the  ancient 
Indians.  Individual  discoveries  of  considerable  merit  are  overlaid 
with  poetical  fictions  and  religious  myths.  Their  labors  in  the  D 
abstract  and  speculative  sciences,  such  as  mathematics  and  philo- 
sophy, are  of  a  more  respectable  character.  To  them  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  invention  of  numerals  and  algebra.  Of  their  reli- 
gious epic  poems,  which  in  many  respects  bear  a  great  resemblance 
to  the  poetry  of  Homer,  the  two  most  ancient  and  famous,  are — 
1.  The  Ramayana  (of  Valmikis),  which  relates,  in  24,000  double 
verses,  the  seventh  incarnation  of  Vishnu  (Ramas)  and  his  expe- 
dition to  Celone.  2.  The  Mahabharata  (of  Vyasas),  which  describes 
in  nearly  100,000  double  verses  a  civil  war  between  two  kindrea 
races,  with  a  great  number  of  episodes. 

b.  Their  profane  writings,  including  their  lyric  and 
dramatic  poetry. 


30  ASIA. — INDIA.  [35.    §  10. 

(34)  The  Indian  drama,  which,  like  that  of  Greece,  is  a  development  of 
A  their  ancient  sacrificial  hymns  and  rural  dances,  has  chosen  its  sub- 
jects from  the  celestial  world  and  the  lives  of  heroes,  as  well  as  from 
the  realms  of  philosophy  and  the  domestic  circle  ;  employing  also,  in 
most  instances,  the  religious  Epopee.  The  most  renowned  dra- 
matic writer  of  Indian  antiquity  was  Kalidasas,  who  flourished 
in  the  first  century  before  Christ.  The  Sakuntala,  of  this  author 
was  the  first  of  his  works  known  in  Europe. 


35      ART. 

B  Architecture.  The  monuments  of  Indian  architecture, 
which  are  on  a  more  stupendous  scale  than  those  of  any 
other  nation,  may  be  divided  into  three  classes.  1.  SUB- 
TERRANEOUS TEMPLES,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock;  re- 
markable for  their  extent,  the  grandeur  of  the  plan,  and 
its  careful  execution,  and  the  richness  of  the  statues 
and  relievos  which  cover  the  walls.  They  are  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  but  the  most  magnificent 
are  at  Ellore,  where  the  mountain  of  the  gods,  as  it  is 
termed,  is  hollowed  out  from  its  base  to  its  summit  into 
innumerable  temples,  forming  a  complete  Pantheon. — 

c  2.  ROCK-TEMPLES,  above  ground,  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
rock.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  are  the  seven  pagodas, 
or  monuments  of  the  rock-city  Mahabalipuram,  on  the 
coast  of  Coromandel. — 3.  BUILDINGS,  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, 
formed  of  masses  of  stone.  These  edifices  are  partly  of 
a  religious  character  (as  the  temples,  called  by  Europeans 
pagodas,  which  are  generally  in  the  form  of  pyramids  and 
obelisks,  and  are  often  superior  in  magnitude  and  colossal 
architecture  to  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  which  they  almost 
invariably  surpass  in  elegance  of  execution  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  details)  ;  partly  erected  for  secular  purposes, 
like  the  castles  and  fortresses  which  are  seen  in  great 
numbers  on  insulated  crags. 

D  The  attainment  of  excellence  in  the  art  of  sculpture  was 
rendered  almost  impossible  by  a  religious  law,  which  pro- 
hibiled  any  change  in  the  existing  form  of  their  sacred 
images. 

Of  painting  we  find  the  earliest  distinct  traces  in  their 
dramatic  representations. 

That  music  attained  perfection  at  an  early  period  among 
the  Indians,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  is 
manifested  by  the  great  variety  of  their  instruments,  as 


36,  87.    §  10.]         ASIA. THE    BABYLONIANS.  31 

well  as  by  the  number  of  Sanscrit  treatises  on  tho  theory 
of  harmony. 

COMMERCE.  30 

Their  home  traffic  was  carried  on,  not  so  much  by  cara-  A 
vans  as  by  individual  traders,  who  employed  tame  ele- 
phants for  the  conveyance  of  their  wares  by  land,  and 
vessels  for  river  and  coast  navigation.  Their  sacred  sta- 
tions, to  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pilgrims  resorted, 
were  the  principal  markets  for  the  sale  of  domestic 
produce. 

The  foreign  trade  was  in  three  directions: — 1.  To  the  B 
North- East,  especially  to  China,  whence  they  imported 
silk.  2.  To  the  East,  or  peninsula  on  the  other  side, 
named  by  the  Greeks  Chryse,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
quantity  of  gold  brought  from  its  coasts.  From  the  nu- 
merous harbors  and  commercial  stations  on  the  coasts  of 
Coromandel  and  Ceylon,  a  brisk  trade  was  carried  on  be- 
tween the  two  extremities  of  India.  3.  To  the  West,  from 
the  Malabar  coast  to  Arabia,  whence  they  imported  frank- 
incense, and  by  Arabian  ships  to  the  eastern  or  gold  coast 
of  Africa. 

The  principal  exports  were — spices,  the  sugar-cane,  precious  c 
stones,  especially  diamonds,  pearls,  various  sorts    of   Indian  cloth, 
from  the  finest  gauze  and  embroidered  satin  to  nankeen  and  cotton 
stuffs,  figured  with  grotesque  representations  of  animals  and  plants 
in  the  brightest  colors,  &c.,  &c. 

III.     The  Babylonians. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. — Native — BEROSUS,  priest  of  Bel  and  37 
astrologer  at  Babylon,  wrote,  about  the  year  B  c.  268,  a  work,  entitled 
Ba/ytAowKu   (in  three  vols.),  compiled    from    ancient    records   pre- 
served  at   Babylon,  and  from  stamped  tiles.     His  book  comprised 
the  histories  of  Babylon,  Assyria,  and  Media.     (Fragments  of  this  D 
work  are  preserved  in  Josephus,  Eusebius,  and  Syncellus.)     2.  ABY- 
DENUS,    a   scholar   probably  of  Berosus,  who    wrote    mpl    rfo   row 
XuA<5atojj>  Bao-tAeiaf.     (Fragments  in  Eusebius,  Cyrillus,  and   Syn- 
eellus.) 

Hebrew. — The  BIBLE,  particularly  the  Books  of  Kings  and  the 
Prophets  (especially  Daniel). 

Greek — 1.  HERODOTUS  ;  see  particularly  B.  I.  c.  178 — 199. 
2.  CTESIAS,  a  native  of  Cnidus  in  Caria,  and  body  physician  to 
Artaxerxes  II.,  compiled  from  oral  accounts  and  the  annals  of  the 
Persian  kingdom,  a  Persian  history  (llEpffixtiv,  23  B  )  ;  of  which 
nothing  is  extant  except  a  quotation  in  Photius,  and  some  fragments 
in  Diodorus.  His  Babylonian  history  (in  B.  I — III.)  contradicts  in 


32  ASIA. THE    BABYLONIANS.       [38 40.T§11. 

(37)  many  particulars  both  the  Bible  and  Herodotus.  3.  DIODORTJS 
-  A  SICULUS,  in  B.  II.  of  his  Bi/?A«o0/j*»j  'loropiKfi.  4.  EUSEBIUS,  Bishop 
of  Cffisarea  (A.  D.  3UO),  wro(e  a  Chronikon  in  two  books,  of  which 
only  fragments  were  known,  until  the  discovery  at  Constantinople  of 
an  Armenian  translation,  which  has  also  been  rendered  into  Latin. 
y.  Heeren,  vol.  2,  pp.  129  et  seq.  Grote,  ch.  19. 

§  11.   Geography  of  Babylon. 

38  SITUATION.     Babylon,  called  also  Chaldaea,  and  in  the 
Bible  Sinear  or  Senaar,  extended  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates  southwards,  from  the  central  bend  of  the  river 

^and  the  Median  wall  (which  separated  it  from  Mesopo- 
tamia) to  the  Persian  gulf. 

B  SOIL.  An  entirely  flat  alluvial  land,  which  on  account 
of  the  want  of  rain,  is  watered  by  canals  by  means  of 
hydraulic  machines,  and  then  produces  from  two  to  three 
hundred  fold.  The  only  tree  that  flourishes  in  this  soil  is 
the  palm,  of  which  there  are  great  numbers.  Its  fruit  not 
only  served  for  food,  but  produced  also  a  sort  of  wine  and 
honey. 

The  want  of  wood  and  stone  is  supplied  by  an  inexhaustible 
abundance  of  clay  for  making  bricks,  and  instead  of  lime  they  used 
naphtha  or  bitumen  (of  which  there  are  large  fountains  in  the 
neighborhood),  with  layers  of  reeds  and  palm -leaves. 

39  RIVERS.     The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris ;  the  last  of 
c  which  is  very  rapid  ;  hence  its  name  Tigris,  which  signifies 

the  arrow.  Both  rise  in  Armenia,  and  unite  their  streams 
fifteen  miles  above  their  entrance  into  the  Persian  gulf  at 
Pasitigris  (Shut-ul-Arab). 

^  The  Euphrates  generally  overflows  its  banks  in  winter,  and  still 
ofiener  in  spring,  when  the  snow  begins  to  melt  on  the  Armenian 
mountains.  These  inundations  were  restrained  by  dams,  or  carried 
off  by  canals  (the  largest  of  which,  the  royal  canal,  communicated 
with  the  Tigris,  and  was  navigable  for  ships  of  considerable  burden,) 
either  into  the  Tigris,  the  bed  of  which  is  lower  than  that  of  the 
Euphrates,  or  into  marshes  and  artificial  lakes. 

40  CITIES. — 1.    Babylon  stood   in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
D  plain  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates.     It  was  surrounded 

by  walls  337  feet  8  inches  high,  75  feet  thick,  and  com- 
prising a  square,  of  which  each  side  was  1*20  stadia  or 
nearly  15  English  miles  in  length.  Around  the  wall  was 
a  broad,  deep  moat,  lined  with  bricks,  and  a  hundred 
gates  served  for  communication  with  the  surrounding 
country.  Each  street  was  15  miles  long,  150  feet  broad, 
except  the  half  streets  under  the  wulls,  which  were  200 


41 43.    §  12.]     ASIA. THE    BABYLONIANS.  33 

feet  broad.      There   were  besides,  296  squares  used  as  (40) 
gardens,  &c.,  so  that  half  the  city,  like  modern  Rome, ^ 
was  filled   with  cultivated  ground.     2.  Borsippa.     3. 
Cunaxa  (battle  in  401). 

BUILDINGS  OF  BABYLON. — The  most  magnificent  were — 1.  The  41 
Temple  of  Bel,  or  Babylonian  Tower;  which  consisted  of  eight  towers 
or  stories,  one  above  the  other,  diminishing  gradually  in  size  as  they 
approached  the  summit,  which  was  crowned  with  a  temple,  containing 
the  couch  and  golden  table  of  the  god.  Used  for  astronomical  ob- 
servations: a  heap  of  ruins  in  Alexander's  time."  2.  Old  palace,  both 
sides  of  the  Euphrates.  3.  New  one  by  Nabopolassar  and  Nebu-  B 
chadnezzar.  Hanging  gardens.  Situate  in  the  Pachalic  of  Bagdad, 
near  Hella.  East  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  ruins  of  vast  buildings — 
none  of  the  walls.  Sirs  Nimrud,  huge  oblong  edifice  of  brick,  west 
of  the  Euphrates — tower  of  Babel  ?  v.  Rich's  Journey  to  Babylon, 
&c. 

§  12.  History  of  the  Babylonians. 

ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   EMPIRE. — According   to  the  42 
express  declaration  of   Scripture,  Babylon   was  a  more 
ancient  state  than  Assyria.      It  was  founded  by  Nimrod 
probably  about  the  year  2000,  and  from  it  Assyria  was 
peopled. 

The  Greeks  mention,  as  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian  empire,  c 
Bel  (i.  e.  Lord  or  King),  to  whom  they  ascribed  all  the  ancient  insti- 
tutions, of  which  the  founders  and  date  were  unknown.  According 
to  the  same  authority,  his  son  Ninus  was  founder  of  the  Assyrian 
empire.  One  writer  alone,  Ctesias,  asserts  that  Assyria  was  the 
mother  country.  The  native  legends,  preserved  by  Berosus,  speak 
often  kings  who  ruled  Babylon  before  the  deluge.  In  the  reign 
of  the  third,  there  arose  out  of  the  Erythraan  sea  a  being  named 
Oannes,  half  man  and  half  fish,  who  taught  men  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  communicated  them  a  legend  respecting  the  creation  of  the 
world.  The  meaning  of  this  fable  probably  was, — that  the  Baby- 
lonians were  indebted  for  their  civilization  to  a  people  who  came 
over  the  sea,  from  Egypt  or  Meroe.  Under  the  last  of  these  kings  D 
(Xisuthrus),  there  was  a  great  deluge,  from  which  the  king  and  his 
family  were  saved  in  a  ship. 

The  history  of  the  Babylonian  empire,  from  the  de- 43 
luge  to  the  Persian  conquest,  comprehends,  according  to 
Berosus,  seven  dynasties,  the  sixth  of  which  (of  forty-five 
Assyrian  kings)  continued,  according  to  the  same  autho- 
rity, 526  years  ;  a  statement  which  is  confirmed  by  the 
assertion  of  Herodotus  (I.  95),  that  the  Assyrian  rule  over 
Upper  Asia  lasted  520  years.  From  this  Assyrian  domi- 


34  ASIA. — THE   BARYLONIANS.  [44.   -§12. 

(43)  nation  the  Babylonians  delivered  themselves,  in  the  year 

A  B.  c.  747,  under  Nabonassar,  with  whom  begins  the  seventh 
dynasty  of  nineteen  native  kings.  (The  era  of  Nabonassar 
reckons  from  the  26th  of  February,  747.)  Repeated  at- 
tempts were  made  by  the  Assyrians  to  repossess  them- 
selves of  Babylon,  which  for  a  short  period  was  again 
subject  to  them.  Under  Nabopolassar,  the  fourteenth  king 
of  this  dynasty  (625 — 604),  happened  probably  the  immi- 
gration of  the  Chaldaeans  from  Mesopotamia ;  which  they 
were  compelled,  it  would  seem,  to  abandon  by  the  Scy- 

B  thians,  who  had  lately  invaded  their  country.  This  sove- 
reign, in  conjunction  with  the  Medes,  put  an  end  to  the 
Assyrian  empire,  destroyed  Nineveh,  and  received  for  his 
share  the  western  portion  of  the  empire  (Mesopotamia, 
Phoenicia,  Syria,  and  Israel).  When  Necho,  in  his  vic- 
torious progress  from  Egypt,  advanced  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates,  Nabopolassar  sent  out  his  son  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who  overthrew  the  invader  near  Carchemish 
(Circesium),  and  compelled  him  to  disgorge  Syria  with 
Palestine  (B.  c.  604).  Meanwhile  Nabopolassar  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (NafiovxodovoaoQo?) 

c  (604 — 561).  In  his  pursuit  of  the  Egyptians,  this  monarch 
advanced  as  far  as  Pelusium,  and  carried  off  a  number  of 
Jews  to  Babylon.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  having  refused 
to  pay  tribute,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Egypt,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  which  sur- 
rendered after  being  closely  invested  for  one  year  and  a 
half.  The  city  was  plundered  and  destroyed  (B.  c.  586) ; 
the  king,  Zedekiah,  had  his  eyes  put  out,  and  most  of  the 
inhabitants  were  carried  away  as  prisoners  to  Babylon. 

D  Those  who  remained  in  Judah  were  subjected  to  the  juris- 
diction of  a  Babylonian  governor.  Nebuchadnezzar  waged 
a  third  war  against  the  Phoenicians,  because  they  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  Zedekiah,  destroyed  Sidon,  and 
besieged  Tyre  thirteen  years  without  success.  Thus  his 
empire  extended  from  the  Nile  to  the  Tigris.  After  his 
return  he  built  the  new  royal  palace,  with  the  hanging 
gardens,  for  his  wife  Nitocris ;  and  laid  the  foundations, 
on  the  other  side  the  Euphrates,  of  a  second  half  of  the 
city,  which  he  surrounded  with  a  triple  intrenchment. 

44      During  his  seven  years  of  madness  the  government  was  adminis- 
tered by  Nitocris.     This  queen  dug  a  lake,  into  which  the  waters  of 


45.    §  13.]  ASIA. THE    BABYLONIANS.  33 

the  Euphrates  could  be  conveyed,  built  a  bridge  over  the  river,  and  (44) 
erected  a  monument,  with  a  lying  inscription,  in  honor  of  herself.         ^ 

His  fourth  successor,  and  the  last  king  of  the  Baby, 
lonians,  was  Nabonedus,  called  by  Herodotus  Labynetus, 
who  supported  Croesus  ineffectually  against  Cyrus,  and  on 
that  account  was  besieged  by  the  Persians  in  Babylon. 
The  river  Euphrates  being  diverted  from  its  course  into 
the  lake  constructed  by  Nitocris,  the  city  was  taken  whilst 
the  inhabitants  were  celebrating  a  feast,  and  Babylon  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  a  Persian  province1  (B.  c.  538). 

§  13.  Religion,  Literature,  fyc.  of  the  Babylonians. 

1.  RELIGION. — The  religion  of  the  Shemites,2  and  of  45 
the  ancient  Asiatics  generally,  was  that  of  nature ;  i.  e.  a  B 
deification  of  her  powers  and  laws,  and  the  offering  up  of 
prayers  to  objects  in  which  those  powers  were  supposed  to 
exist.  In  this  natural  religion  the  Godhead  is  not,  as  in 
the  religion  of  the  Hebrews,  a  distinct  self-existent  ruler 
by  whom  nature  is  governed,  but  the  innate  powers  of 
nature  herself,  as  she  reveals  them  according  to  fixed  laws, 
sometimes  in  creation  and  preservation,  and  then  again  in 
the  destruction  of  her  own  works ;  thus  exciting  in  the 
rninds  of  men  at  one  time  admiration,  love,  and  adoration, 
and  at  another,  terror,  and  a  desire  to  avert  her  anger.  The  c 
most  common  idea  of  the  Godhead  among  Asiatic  nations, 
who  profess  the  religion  of  nature,  is  that  it  consists  (after 
the  analogy  of  mortals)  of  a  male  and  female.  Thus  Baal 
is  the  active,  and  Baaltis  the  passive  power  of  nature ;  the 
one  a  creative,  conservative,  but  at  the  same  time  destruc- 
tive element,  the  other  the  concipient  and  productive  prin- 
ciple. This  sexual  distinction,  which  extends  to  all  the 
powers  and  phenomena  of  nature,  seems  to  have  occa- 
sioned at  an  early  period  the  grammatical  distinction  of 
genders  as  applied  to  inanimate  objects.  A  later  step  in  D 
the  development  of  material  religion  was  the  representation 
of  gods  with  human  characters  and  the  human  form.  To 

1  According  to  Xenophon  (Cyrop.  vii.  5),  and  Daniel  (v.  30),  the 
king  lost  his  life  when  the  city  was  taken ;  but  Berosus  asserts  that 
he  escaped  to  Borsippa,  gave  himself  up  to  Cyrus,  and  ended  his  life 
in  Carmania. 

*  To  the  Shemites  belonged  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Pho3ni- 
cians,  Carthaginians,  and  Lydians. 


36  ASIA.— THE    BABYLONIANS.      [46 48.    §  13. 

(45)  complete  this  notion,  the  gods  were  described  as  dwelling 
A  on  earth,  and  as  the  founders  of  families,  especially  those 
of  kings  and  princes,  suffering  the  trials  of  mortality,  and 
at  last  dying  and  reposing  in  sepulchres,  which  were  still 
to  be  seen.  Thus  we  find,  that  wherever  any  divinity  was 
especially  venerated,  he  or  she  had  been  in  ancient  times 
the  king  or  queen  of  the  country,  and  that  the  guardian 
deities  of  cities  were  generally  their  founders.  The  first 
rank  among  the  Shemitic  divinities  is  assigned  to  Bel 
(Belitan),  their  first  king,  who  subdued  the  whole  east, 
beginning  with  Syria,  and  stands  at  the  head  of  all  the 
B  Shemitic  royal  pedigrees.  From  him  the  Babylonians 
gave  their  city  the  name  of  Babel  (z.  e.  the  court  of  Bel), 
and  ascribed  to  him  the  erection  of  their  famous  wall,  and 
even  of  the  tower  of  Babel.  In  this  fortress  he  was  ac- 
customed to  watch  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
from  a  lofty  observatory,  and  communicate  his  discoveries 
to  the  Chaldseans. 

46  Of  the  five  planets,  two,  Jupiter  and  Venus,  were  considered  be- 
Q  neficent  powers  by  the  Chaldaeans,  and  all  the  other  astrologers  of 

those  days.  Mars  and  Saturn  were  destructive,  and  Mercury  some- 
times good  and  sometimes  malignant,  according  to  his  position.  The 
Chaldaean  priests  believed  that  the  will  of  the  gods  and  the  destinies 
of  men  might  be  learned  from  the  position,  rising,  and  setting  of  the 
planets,  and  in  the  course  of  their  observations  made  many  scientific 
discoveries. 

47  2.    THE  CONSTITUTION.     "  The  King  of  kings,"  who 
received  divine  honors  from  his 'people,  and  exercised  un- 
controlled and  irresponsible  power,  resided  in  his  tower, 
surrounded  by   an  immense  multitude  of  officers  and  at- 

D  tendants.  The  empire  was  divided  into  satrapies,  which 
were  governed  despotically  by  the  king's  lieutenants. 
Considerable  authority  was  also  possessed  by  the  priestly 
caste  of  the  Magi,  who  were  termed  pre-eminently  "  Chal- 
dseans "  (Kasdim),  and  were  sole  possessors  of  all  the 
learning  of  those  days,  which  they  communicated  by  tra- 
dition to  members  of  their  own  caste. 

48  3.  TRADE.      The  favorable  position  of  their  country, 
midway  between  the  Indus  and  the  Mediterranean,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Persian  gulf,  and  on  the  banks  of  two 
navigable  rivers,  rendered  Babylon  the  centre  of  com- 
mercial communication  between  Upper  and  Lower  Asia. 


49 51.    §  14.]        ASIA. THE    ASSYRIANS.         *  37 

a.  The  land  trade  was  carried  on  by  means  of  caravans,  eastward,  (4g) 
with  India  (from  which  they  imported  precious  stones,  hounds,  and  A 
coloring  substances),  and  with  Bactria  (for  gold)  ;  westward,  with 
Asia  and  Phoenicia,  up  the  Euphrates  as  far  as  Thapsacus,  and  thence 

by  caravans.     Their  exports  to  these  countries  were  Arabian   and 
Indian  produce. 

b.  Trade  on  the  Euphrates,  by  leathern  boats,  which  brought  wine 
from  Armenia. 

c.  Maritime  commerce  was  carried  on,  not  so  much  by  the  Baby- 
lonians themselves,  as  through  the  Phoenicians  settled  on  the  coasts  of 
Arabia,  and  the  Arabians  beyond  the  Persian  gulf:   1 ,  with  Arabia 
(especially  with  the  Chaldaean  colony  of  Gerra  and   the  islands  of 
Tylus  and  Aradus),  whence  they  brought  back  pearls,  cotton,  frank- 
incense, and  timber  for  ship-building  ;  and,  2,  with  the  western  coast 
of  India,  from   which  they  imported  spices,  ivory,  ebony,  precious 
stones,  pearls  ;  and  with  Ceylon,  which  sent  them  cinnamon. 

4.     ARTS   AND   MANUFACTURES.     Woollen  and    cotton  49 
stuffs  and  carpets,  objects  of  luxury  (perfumed  waters,  B 
carved  walking-sticks,  cut  stones). 

IV.   The  Assyrians. 

SOURCES  of  INFORMATION. — The  same  as  those  for  Babylonian  his-  50 
tory.     The  most  numerous,  but  at  the  same  time  most  incredible  and 
fabulous  notices  are  found  in  Clesias  (B.  1 — 3).     To  these  we  may 
add  Trogus  Pompeius,  a  Gaul  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus.    We  have   his   universal   history  in   the   Latin  extracts  of 
Justin  (see  the  beginning  of  B.  1).     Herodotus,  in  his  history  (i.  184;  C 
compare  i.  106),  refers  to  a  separate  history  ot  Assyria,  which  has 
been  lost.     Grote,  ch.  19.     Layard's  Nineveh. 

§  14.     Geography  of  Assyria. 

NAME  AND  SITUATION.  By  the  term  Assyria  we  un-  51 
derstand — 1,  the  province  ;  comprehending  all  the  country 
between  the  Tigris  and  Media,  southwards  as  far  as  Baby- 
lon, and  northwards  to  Armenia,  corresponding  to  what  is 
now  termed  Kurdistan;  2,  the  empire;  which,  besides 
the  province  of  Assyria,  comprised  Mesopotamia.  Babylon, 
with  Chaldaea,  Media,  and  Persia.  Sometimes  the  names 
of  Assyria  and  Syria  were  interchanged. 

SOIL.     Mountainous  in  the  north  and  east ;  well  watered,  D 
and  consequently  for  the  most  part  productive  ;  produces 
bitumen.     Chief  and  boundary  river,  the  Tigris. 

CITIES.  Nineveh  (17  IVtvo?),  the  earlier  city  built  by 
Ninus,  was  situated  on  the  Tigris,  probably  where  the 
royal  canal  runs  into  the  river  ;  the  more  modern  city  of 


38  ASIA. THE    ASSYRIANS.  [52,  53.    §  15. 

(51)  Ninus  lay  further  north  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris. 
A  The  old  town  was  480  stadia  in  circumference  (150  in 
length,  and  90  in  breadth) :  its  walls  were  100  feet  high, 
and  broad  enough  to  receive  three  carriages  abreast,  with 
1500  towers,  200  feet  in  height.  2.  Gaugamela  iu  I*.), 
in  the  vicinity  of  Arbela  (ru  A.),  the  scene  of  Alexander's 
victory  in  331. 

§  15.  History  of  the  Assyrians. 

52  According  to  the  Bible  narrative,  the  Assyrian  empire 
B  and  its  capital  Nineveh  were  founded  from  Babylon,  either 

by  Nimrod  himself,  or  by  the  emigration  of  the  tribe  of 
Assur.1  Grecian  writers  ascribe  the  foundation  either  to 
Bel  or  to  his  son  NINUS  (a  personification  of  the  Baby. 
Ionian  colony),  about  2000  years  before  Christ.  To  this 
monarch  and  his  consort  and  successor  SEMIRAMIS  (daughter 
of  the  goddess  Derketo),  Ctesias  ascribes  expeditions  on  a 
magnificent  scale  in  Asia  and  Africa  (against  Bactria, 
Libya,  Ethiopia,  and  India),  in  which  the  forces  on  both 
sides  amounted  to  several  millions. 

C  Semiramis  founded  commercial  cities  on  both  sides  of  the  principal 
rivers,  with  causeways,  canals,  dams,  extensive  gardens,  &c. ;  be- 
sides erecting  memorials  of  her  expeditions,  one  of  which  is  still  seen 
at  Ecbatana.  According  to  Ctesias,  she  conquered  the  greater  part 
of  Libya  and  Ethiopia,  and  at  last  undertook  an  expedition  on  the 
Indus  against  an  Indian  king,  with  an  enormous  force  consisting  of 
3,000,000  of  infantry,  500,000  cavalry,  and  100,000  chariots;  and  a 
fleet  of  2000  ships.  This  multitude  was  met  by  a  still  more  numerous 
army  of  Indians,  who  were  vanquished  by  Semiramis  ;  but  the  strata- 
gem of  her  pretended  elephants  being  discovered,  the  heroine  was 
compelled  to  give  way  in  her  turn,  and  being  wounded  by  the  king, 
returned  to  Nineveh,  where  she  soon  afterwards  died,  and  was  num- 
bered among  the  gods. 

53  Semiranm  was  succeeded  by  her  son  NINYAS.  This  mon- 
D  arch  and  his  successors  (until  Sardanapalus),  whose  number, 

names,  and  reigns  are  variously  given,  led  for  the  most  part 
an  effeminate  life  in  their  palace,  which  was  guarded  by  a 
standing  army  of  400,000  men,  changed  every  year.  During 

1  Whether  Nimrod  himself  was  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire is  doubtful  ;  for  the  passage  (Gen.  x.  11)  may  be  interpreted — 
"  From  this  country  he  (Nimrod)  went  to  Assyria,  and  built  Ni- 
neveh ;"  or  it  may  signify — "  From  this  country  went  Assur,  and 
built  Nineveh." 


54.    §  15.]  ASIA. THE    ASSYRIANS.  39 

this  period  (according  to  Herodotus  and  Berosus)  occurred  (53) 
the  subjection  of  Upper  Asia  to  Assyrian  rule.     After  an  A 
interval  of  thirty  generations,  we  find  the  throne  occupied 
by  the  effeminate  TONOSKONKOLEROS,  surnamed  Sarda- 
napalus (the  Admirable),  about  the  year  B.  c.  840.     An 
insurrection  of  the  Babylonians   and  Medes  against  this 
monarch  produced  the  establishment  of  an  independent 
Median  empire,  whilst  that  of  the  Assyrians,  so  far  from 
being  destroyed,  continued  to  subsist  under  its  own  kings, 
the  Babylonian  empire  being  also  incorporated  with  it.1 
There  exists  no  record  of  the  kings  who  succeeded  Sar-  B 
danapalus  until  the  period  when  the  history  of  Assyria 
becomes  blended  with  that  of  Israel.     We  have  then  the 
following  succession  : — 

PHUL  (about  B.  c.  770),  who  compelled  the  Israelites  to  pay 
tribute. 

Under  TIGLATH.PILESER  the  Babylonians  revolted  54 
(747) ;  but  the  Assyrians  were  indemnified  for  this  loss 
by  the  acquisition  of  Syria  and  a  part  of  Israel,  which  were 
invaded  and  conquered  by  their  king  on  the  invitation  of  the 
king  of Judah.  SALMANASSAR,  'Shalmaneser'  (730),  after  c 
the  conquest  of  Samaria  (in  722),  destroyed  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  which  had  refused  to  pay  tribute  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  Egyptians.  The  Israelites  were  transported 
to  Assyria,  and  Assyrians  sent  to  supply  their  places.  The 
conqueror  then  advanced  as  far  as  Phoenicia,  which  he 
subdued,  with  the  exception  of  the  insular  city  of  Tyre, 
the  siege  of  which  he  was  compelled  to  raise,  after  his  fleet 
had  been  defeated  by  the  Tyrians.  The  Assyrian  empire 
was  now  exceedingly  flourishing ;  but  again  declined  under 
SENNACHERIB2  (Sanacharibos,  about  B.C.  713),  who  subdued 

1  According  to  Ctesias,  this  revolt  of  the  governor  Arbaces  and  the 
priest  Belesys  of  Babylon  ended  in  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  and 
the  complete  dissolution  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  But  as  it  is  spoken 
of  in  the  Bible  as  continuing  to  exist  after  this  period,  and  the  names 
of  Assyrian  kings  are  given,  by  whom  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was 
overthrown,  some  writers  have  tried  to  reconcile  the  discrepancy  by 
supposing  a  second  or  new  Assyrian  empire.  It  is,  however,  certain 
that  such  an  empire  never  existed  ;  the  supposition  being  grounded 
on  the  error  of  Ctesias,  who  places  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  and 
the  dissolution  of  the  Assyrian  empire  in  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus  I. 
instead  of  that  of  Sardanapalus  II. 

a  [Between  Shalmaneser  and  Sennacherib  we  meet  with  Sargon 
in  Is.  xx.  1.  Mr.  Browne's  dates  are  :  Shalmaneser,  723 ;  Sargon, 
cir.  718  ;  Sennacherib,  713.] 


40  ASIA. THE   ASSYRIANS.  [55.    §  16. 

(54)  the  Babylonians,  took  their  king  prisoner,  and  made  his 
A  own  son  king  of  Babel ;  but  in  an  attempt  on  Judah  was 
not  only  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of  Pelusium  (the 
bow-strings  of  his  soldiers  having  been  gnawed  through,  it 
is  said,  by  field-mice),  but  lost  his  army  under  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  [by  the  miraculous  interposition  of  God,  of  which 
the  tale  just  mentioned  was  probably  a  corrupted  or  disguised 
version],  and  after  his  return  was  slain  by  his  two  eldest  sons. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  third  son,  ASSAR-HADDON  ('  E  s  a  r- 
h  ad  don/  about  700),  who  warded  off  the  ruin  of  the  empire 
B  for  a  time.  Under  the  last  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  S  ard  an  a- 
palus  II.  (or  Sarak),  an  alliance  was  formed  between 
Nabopolassar,  governor  of  Babylon,  and  Cyaxares,  king  of 
Media  (whose  daughter  Nitocris  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Nebukadnezar,  the  son  of  his  ally),  for  the  conquest  of 
Assyria  ;  and  the  Assyrians  were  already  overthrown  in 
an  engagement  and  siege  laid  to  Nineveh,  when  the  Scy- 
thians invaded  Media,  and  kept  possession  of  the  country 
for  twenty-eight  years.  It  was  not  until  after  their  ex- 
pulsion that  Nineveh  fell,  and  was  utterly  destroyed,  pro- 
bably about  the  year  B.  c.  604 !  [606,  Browne  and  Zumpt ; 
Niebuhr,  625]. 

§  16.     Religion,  Literature,  fyc.  of  the  Assyrians. 

55  Notwithstanding  the  fertility  of  their  soil,  the  Assyrians 
c  never  attained  a  high  state  of  civilization.  Their  trade 
was  in  the  hands  of  foreigners  ; .  nor  do  we  find  among 
them  any  traces  of  art  or  science,  beyond  the  rough  tactics 
of  a  half-savage  warfare.  Their  religion  consisted  in  the 
worship  of  the  planets,  like  that  of  the  Babylonians,  but 
under  different  names,  and  in  the  offering  up  of  human 

1  This  statement  follows  exactly  the  words  of  Herodotus  (I.  103 — 
106).  According  to  the  historian,  the  war  of  Cyaxares  against  the 
Assyrians  and  the  siege  of  Nineveh  were  interrupted  by  an  invasion 
of  the  Scythians.  The  conquest  of  Assyria  is  mentioned  as  occurring 
subsequently  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Scythians,  and  being  the  last  act 
of  the  reign  of  Cyaxares.  Now  if  his  reign  began  in  633,  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Scythians,  after  twenty-eight  years'  occupation  of  the 
land,  could  not  be  earlier  than  605  or  604,  and  the  taking  of  Nine- 
veh could  not,  therefore,  have  occurred  previously  to  the  year  604. 
That  it  did  not  happen  later  than  that  year  is  evident  from  the 
prophecy  of  Jeremiah  (xxv.  18),  delivered  in  the  first  year  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar (t.  e.  B.C.  604),  which  does  not  mention  Assyria  among 
the  nations  threatened  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  because  Nineveh  had 
been  already  destroyed.  [Cf.  Ordo  Saclorum,  §  491.] 


56  —  59.    §  17,  18.]    ASIA.  -  THE    MEDES.  41 

victims.     Their  political  constitution  was  similar  to  that  of  A 
the  Babylonian  empire. 

V.   TfoMedcs. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.      Native.  —  ZOROASTER'S  Zend-Avesta.  55 
Greek.—  Herodotus,  i.  95—130.     CTESIAS,  B.  4—6  (in  Diodorus,  ii. 
24  —  34).    XENOFHON  of  Athens,  in  his  Kvpov  naifcia,  contradicts  both 
Herodotus  and  Ctesias.     But  this  work  is  not  generally  received  ai 
an  authentic  history.    Grote,  ch.  17. 

§  17.   Geography  of  Media. 

BOUNDARIES.  —  On  the  north  the  Caspian  sea,  on  the  57 
east  Hyrcania  and  Parthia  (in  ancient  times  the  domi-  B 
nion  of  the  Medes  seems  also  to  have  comprehended  Aria 
and  Bactria),  on  the  south,  Susiana  and  Persis,  and  on 
the  west,  Assyria  and  Armenia. 

SOIL.  —  The  northern  part,  afterwards  named  the  lesser  58 
Media  or  Atropatene  (now  Aderbeidscan  [Azerbijan]), 
was  a  cold  and  barren  tract  of  hilly  country,  whilst  the 
southern  or  greater  Media  was  a  fertile  plain,  which  pro- 
duced wine  and  all  sorts  of  southern  fruits.  In  this  dis- 
trict, on  the  Nissean  plains,  were  reared  the  white  horses 
so  famous  for  their  size,  sureness  of  foot,  and  swiftness. 

The  Kdo-TTiat  iriiAai  was  a  narrow  mountain  pass  which  formed  the 
only  means  of  communication  with  the  north-eastern  districts. 


The  capital,  Ecbatana  (Called  by  Herodotus,  Ttx'jypd-  c 

now  Hamadan)  was  built  without  walls  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  stood  the  royal  castle, 
surrounded  by  seven  walls  increasing  in  height  as  they 
approached  the  centre,  and  crowned  with  battlements 
painted  seven  different  colors.  As  the  residence  of  the 
Median,  and  subsequently  of  the  Persian,  kings,  as  well  as 
on  account  of  its  situation  on  the  great  commercial  road 
between  Babylon  and  India,  Ecbatana  soon  became  one  of 
the  fairest  cities  of  Asia. 

§  18.  History  of  the  Medes. 

The  first  mention  of  the  Medes  is  found  in  Berosus,  59 
who  speaks  of  Babylon  being  ruled  by  a  dynasty  of  eight  D 
Median  kings.     At  a  later  period  they  became  subject  to 
the  Assyrians,  from  whose  dominion  they  emancipated 


42  ASIA. THE    MEDES.  [60.    §  18 

(59)  themselves  in  the  reign  of  Arbaces.  For  a  succession  of 
A  years,  each  tribe  (of  which  Herodotus,  i.  101,  enumerates 
six)  was  governed  by  its  own  prince  or  chieftain,  until  the 
election  of  the  judge  DEIOCES  to  be  king  of  the  whole 
nation.  This  sovereign  (who  reigned  from  708 — 655) 
built  the  city  of  Ecbatana  with  its  castle,  established  a 
body  guard,  and  introduced  a  rigid  court  ceremonial. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  PHRAORTES  (655 — 633), 
who  subdued  the  Persians  and  other  nations  of  Asia,  but 
was  slain  in  battle  with  the  Assyrians.  His  son  CYAXARES 
(633 — 593)  was  the  first  who  divided  the  army  regularly 
B  into  cavalry  soldiers,  spearmen,  and  archers.  He  subdued 
western  Asia  as  far  as  the  river  Halys.  Having  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  Babylonian  king,  Nabopolassar,  Cyax- 
ares commenced  a  war  with  the  Assyrians,  and  laid  siege 
to  Nineveh  ;  but  the  Scythian  Nomades  (who  had  driven 
the  Cimmerians  out  of  Europe  into  Asia  Minor)  advanced 
into  Media,  defeated  Cyaxares,  and  remained  masters  for 
twenty-eight  years  (633 — 605)  of  the  whole  of  western 
Asia  as  far  as  Syria,  and  even  extended  their  conquests  to 
Egypt,  where  they  were  bribed  by  the  king,  Psammetichus, 
to  withdraw  their  forces  from  his  country. 

C  Whilst  the  Scythians  were  thus  dominant  in  Asia,  that  is  to  say, 
were  driving  their  herds  wherever  they  found  pasture,  and  plunder- 
ing the  inhabitants,  Cyaxares  was  carrying  on  a  war  (which  lasted 
six  years)  against  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia.  The  pretence  for 
this  aggression  was,  that  Alyattes  had  refused  to  deliver  up  some 
Scythians,  who  had  set  before  Cyaxares  at  a  banquet  the  body  of  a 
murdered  Median  boy.  The  war,  which  was  carried  on  for  some 
time,  with  various  success,  was  suddenly  terminated  by  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun,  which  had  been  foretold  by  Thales  the  Ionian  (30th  Sept., 
610). 

60  A  number  of  the  Scythians  having  been  treacherously 
D  murdered  at  a  banquet,  where  they  had  drunk  to  excess, 
the  remainder  returned  to  their  own  country,  and  finding  a 
new  generation,  the  offspring  of  their  wives  and  slaves, 
attacked  the  intruders  with  whips  instead  of  swords,  and 
completely  vanquished  them.  After  the  departure  of  the 
Scythians,  Cyaxares  renewed  the  war  against  the  Assy- 
rians, destroyed  Nineveh,  and  reduced  Assyria  itself  to 
the  condition  of  a  Median  province  (604),  the  western 
districts  of  that  empire  being  left  to  his  ally  Nabopolassar. 
His  son  and  successor,  ASTYAGES  (593 — 558),  lost  Persia, 


61,  62.    §  19.]  ASIA. — THE   MEDES.  43 

which  revolted  under  his  grandson  Cyrus ;  and  taking  the  (60) 
field  in  person  against  the  rebels,  was  defeated  and  made  A 
prisoner  at  Pasargadse. 

VARIOUS  ACCOUNTS  OF  THE  RELATION  WHICH  CYRUS  BORE  TO  01 
ASTYAGES. — According  to  Herodotus  (who  had  heard  four  different 
accounts)  the  king,  having  had  a  strange  dream  respecting  a  flood, 
married  his  daughter  Mandane  to  a  Persian  named  Cambyses,  by 
whom  she  had  Agradatus,  afterwards  called  Cyrus.  Astyages  has 
a  second  dream  concerning  a  vine — Cyrus,  being  exposed  by  Har- 
pagus,  is  rescued  by  a  herdsman  and  brought  up  as  his  son — is 
chosen  king  by  his  playmates — recognized  by  Astyages — Harpagus 
made  to  feast  on  the  limbs  of  his  own  son — the  Magi  declare  that 
the  dream  of  Astyages  is  already  fulfilled — Cyrus  sent  back  to 
Persia  to  his  own  parents — receives  a  letter  from  Harpagus,  con- 
veyed in  the  belly  of  a  hare — and  in  consequence  incites  the  Medes 
to  revolt — the  two  unequal  days  [the  day  of  toil  and  the  day  of  feast- 
ing;— the  latter  as  a  type  of  what  every  day  would  be,  if  they  conquered 
the  Medes] — Cyrus  and  the  Persians  rise  against  Astyages — Harpa- 
gus, being  sent  to  oppose  him,  goes  over  to  the  rebels — Astyages 
overthrown,  and  taken  prisoner  in  an  engagement  at  Pasargadae. 

ACCORDING  TO  CTESIAS,  Cyrus  was  not  related  to  Astyages,  but  p 
was  urged  to  attack  him  simply  by  the  lust  of  conquest.     He  stormed 
Ecbatana,  took  the  king  prisoner  and  then  released  him ;  but  after- 
wards sent  him  into  a  desert  to  die  of  starvation. 

XENOPHON'S  story  is,  that  Cyrus,  so  far  from  having  obtained  the 
crown  by  violence  from  Astyages,  was  not  even  his  immediate 
successor,  Astyages  being  succeeded  by  his  son  Cyaxares  II.,  at 
whose  death  the  kingdom  passed  quietly  into  the  hands  of  Cyrus.1 

§  19.  Religion,  Literature,  fyc.  of  the  Medes. 

The  RELIGION  of  the  Medes,  even  before  the  time  of  the  6? 
Median  kings,  whose  names  are  given  by  Herodotus,  was  c 
that  of  the  ancient  Bactrians  or  Zend- people,  as  they  were 
called,  who  quitted  their  Nomadic  life  at  the  instance  of  a 
leader  named  Dsjemschid,  and  established  themselves  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Oxus.  This  doctrine,  of  which  Zara- 
thustro  or  Zoroaster,  who  flourished  long  after  Dsjemschid, 
was  the  author,  was  contained  in  the  Zend-Avesta,  in  twenty- 
one  parts,  of  which  one  (the  Vendidad)  has  reached  us 
entire,  and  the  others  only  in  fragments  and  tables  of 
contents. 

1  As  a  confirmation  of  this  account,  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
Xenophon  relates  several  acts  of  Cyaxares  II.,  which  cannot  all  be 
the  offspring  of  a  poetical  imagination  ;  and  that  the  prophet  Daniel 
(vi.  1  ;  ix.  1),  who  lived  at  the  Medo-Persian  court,  speaks  (after 
Astyages)  of  a  Darius  the  Mede,  who  answers  to  the  Cyaxares  II. 
of  Xenophon. 


44  ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.        [63 — 65.    §19. 

53  The  principal  doctrines  taught  in  the  Zend-Avesta  are,  that  there 
A  exists  a  kingdom  of  light  (i.  e.  a  good  principle)  in  which  Ormuzd 
reigns,  who  is  the  origin  and  promoter  of  all  good — and  a  kingdom 
of  darkness  (i.e.  an  evil  principle),  the  ruler  of  which,  Ahriman,  is 
the  author  of  all  physical  and  moral  evil.  Both  these  kingdoms  are 
engaged  in  a  perpetual  warfare,  but  Ahriman  will  one  day  be  over- 
come, and  the  kingdom  of  light  alone  remain.  All  things  in  the 
world  belong  either  to  Ormuzd  (pure  men,  beasts,  and  plants) ,  or  to 
Ahriman  (unclean,  i.  e.  sinful  men,  and  impure,  i.  e.  poisonous  or 
hurtful,  beasts  and  plants).  Moral  precepts. — Everyman  should  be 
pure  and  holy,  and  promote  purity  and  holiness  by  every  means  in 
his  power.  On  this  principle  are  grounded  his  laws  respecting  the 
improvement  of  the  land  by  agriculture  and  pasturage,  and  of  the 
B  human  race  by  marriage.  His  disciples  are  commanded  to  adore 
the  sacred  fire.  The  people  are  divided  into  four  castes — priests, 
warriors,  husbandmen,  and  mechanics ;  the  king  is  absolute,  and  his 
ordinances  irrevocable,  but  he  is  required  to  follow  the  precepts  of 
Ormuzd,  and  command  only  that  which  is  good  and  just. 

64  This  code  of  laws  was  intrusted  to  the  Magi,  to  whom 
alone  belonged  the  right  of  offering  up  prayers  and  sacri- 
fices, and  of  interpreting  the  will  of  Ormuzd.  They  pos- 
sessed great  influence  also  over  all  public  and  private 
undertakings,  on  account  of  the  universal  belief  in  divina- 
tion, especially  by  means  of  the  stars.  There  were  no 
temples. 

,3  Constitution. — At  first,  the  different  clans  lived  apart, 
each  under  a  chief  chosen  by  itself;  but  from  the  time  of 
Deidces,  the  nation  was  governed  by  a  king,  to  whom  they 
paid  divine  honors,  and  whose  will  was  law,  but  his  ordi- 
nances, when  once  promulgated,  could  not  be  recalled. 

Manufactures. — The  Median  stuffs  (probably  of  silk),  celebrated 
for  the  deliiacy  of  their  texture  and  the  brightness  of  the  colors, 
were  the  favorite  dress  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks. 

VI.   The  Persians. 

05  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION.— 1.  Native.  The  annals  of  the  Persian 
empire  (6t<f,dcpal  0aai\tKai)  were  compiled  by  the  scribes,  who 
D  always  attended  the  king,  and  preserved  in  the  royal  residences  a 
Susa,  Babylon,  and  Ecbatana.  From  these  annals  the  Greek 
historians  have  drawn  their  facts.  The  Persian  poets  (Ferdusi,  in 
the  seventh  century),  and  annalists  (Mirkhond,  in  the  fourteenth), 
of  the  middle  ages,  contain  notices  of  ancient  Persian  history,  which 
are  utterly  at  variance  with  the  accounts  of  the  Greek  writers. 

2.  Scriptural. — The  books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther  (the 
last  for  a  knowledge  of  Persian  court  life),  and  the  contemporary 
Propheta. 

3.  Greek. — HERODOTUS,  who  in  addition  to  the  oral  information 


66,  67.    §  20.]          ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  45 

obtained   in   his   travels,  seems   to  hav«    drawn   largely  from    the  /g«j\ 
Persian  archives  (e.  g.  in  his  description  of  the  nations  who  com-       ' 
posed  the  army  of  Xerxes,  his  account  of  the  speeches  delivered  by 
the    Persian  kings,  &c.).      Thucydides  the  Athenian  (born  371), 
Evyypa0ri,  in  eight  books.     Ctesias.      Xenophon's  'Ai/d/?aa<f,  Kvpov 
iratfcia,    and  'EAAqctird.       Diodorus.       Ari'ian's    'laroptrT>v     Avafiaatws 
'AAcfipfyov,  seven  books,  compiled  from  the  journals  of  writers  who 
accompanied  Alexander.     Plutarch,  in  the  life  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  and 
biographies  of  different  Grecian  Generals.      Mod.  Heeren,  vol.  1. 
Grote,  chs.  32 — 36.     Eliot,  ch.  4. 

§  20.   Geography  of  the  Persian  Empire. 

NAME. — The  term  "  Persia  "  signifies  either  the  pro-  66 
vince,  which  was  bounded  by  Media  and  the  Persian  gulf,  B 
or  the  Persian  empire,  which  extended  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  Indus,  and  from  the  Pontus  Euxinus  and 
the  Caspian  to  the   Indian  sea,  and  at  one  time  compre- 
hended Egypt,  Thrace,  and  Macedonia. 

The  Countries  belonging  to  the  Persian  Empire  were, 

I.  In  Europe;  Thrace  and  Macedonia. 

II.  In  Africa  ;  Egypt  and  the  neighboring  country  of 
Libya. 

III.  In  Asia. 

A.  On  this  side  the  Euphrates  (or  the  western  part  o/*67 
the  highland  country  of  Asia).  c 

1.  Asia-Minor  (Anatolia),  see  110,  sqq.  (p.  65). 

2.  Syria  (in  the  Bible  Aram),  in  the  more  restricted 
sense  of  the  term,  the  country  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  Euphrates  (sometimes  with,  sometimes  without  Phoe- 
nicia and  P  a  1  e  s  t  i  n  e),  in  its  wider  sense,  the  whole  region 
as  far  as  the  Tigris  (Assyria  often  used  for  Syria  and 
vice  versa).    FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY.— Partly  mountainous 
and  partly  desert.     CITIES. — 1.  Thapsacus  on  the  Eu- D 
phrates  ;  2.  Tadmor  or  Palmyra  in  the  Syrian  desert, 
built  by  Solomon,  afterwards  the  capital  of  a  kingdom 
(under  Odenathus  and  Zenobia) ;  3.  Chalybon,   famous 
for  its  excellent  wine.     The  term  of  y  xo/Aq  2vgla^  Ccele- 
Syria,  was  first  employed  in  the  time  of  the  Seleucidse  to 
designate  the  southern  part  of  Syria,  which  lies  between 
the  chains  of  Libanon  and  Anti-Libanon  [in  Lat.,  Libanus 
and  Anti-Libanus']  ;    Damascus  was  the  capital  of  this 
district,  and  at  a  later  period  Antiochia  and  Seleucia, 
both  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator. 

3.  Phoenicia,  see  97  (p.  60). 

4.  Palestine,  see  10  (p.  8). 


46  ASIA. THE   PERSIANS.       [68 — 70.    §20 

68  B.    Between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  (or  the  Alpine 
A  country  of  Armenia  and  the  lower  terraces  of  the  Euphra- 
tes and  Tigris). 

1.  Armenia,  northward  from  Mesopotamia  and  As- 
syria, and  westward  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Caspian 
sea. 

SOIL. — An  elevated  cold  mountain  soil,  interspersed  with  warm 
fertile  valleys,  from  which  wine  was  conveyed  by  the  Euphrates  to 
Babylon,  and  horses  and  mules  to  Phoenicia.  There  were  no  cities 
here  in  the  Persian  times,  but  merely  extensive  open  spots.  At  a 
later  period  we  find  Artaxata  (ra  'A.)  and  Tigrano-certa. 
B  2.  Mesopotamia  (a  name  unknown  in  the  Persian 
times,  and  subsequently  reckoned  sometimes  as  belonging 
to  Syria,  sometimes  to  Arabia)  extended  southwards  from 
Armenia  to  the  Euphrates  and  the  Median  wall,  which 
form  the  boundaries  on  the  side  of  Babylonia. 

SOIL. — In  the  north,  mountainous,  well-watered,  and  fertile  ;  in 
the  interior,  barren,  and  inhabited  only  by  Nomadic  hordes.  Cities, 
Karkemish  [or  Carchemish]  (Circeaium),  &c. 

c  3.  Babylonia,  always  distinguished  in  the  Persian  times 
from  the  rest  of  Mesopotamia,  the  richest  and  most  pow- 
erful of  the  satrapies.  See  38,  sqq.  (p.  32). 

69  C.    Countries  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Indus,  or  the 
eastern  part  of  the  highland  district  of  Asia — Plateau  of 
Iran. 

a.  On  the  western  border  of  the  highland  country. 

1.  Assyria,  see  51,  sqq.  (p.  37). 

2.  Media,  see  57,  sqq.  (p.  41). 

D  3.  Susiana  (Louristan),  between  Babylonia  and  Per- 
sis  on  the  Persian  gulf;  the  entrance  to  the  highlands ; 
capital  city,  Susa  (TU  2owa). 

b.  On  the  southern  border. 

1.  Persis  (Pars  or  Farsistan),  between  Susiana 
and  Carmania  on  the  Persian  gulf. 

SOIL. — Various :  in  the  north,  lofty  and  rugged  mountains  ;  in  the 
centre,  fertile,  undulating  plains  (especially  on  the  rivers  Cyrus  and 
Araxes) ;  in  the  south,  the  mountains  end  abruptly  in  a  narrow, 
sandy,  desert  shore,  of  African  character,  rendered  almost  unin- 
habitable in  summer  by  the  simoom. 

70  On  these  mountain  ridges  stood  the  CITIES  of  1.  Perse- 
polis,  not  the  residence,1  but  the  burial-place  of  the  Per- 

1  [The  monuments  show  that  the  Persian  monarchs  must,  even  at 
the  height  of  their  power,  have  resided  there  from  time  to  time. — 
Neibuhr.] 


71 — 73.    §20.]      ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  47 

sian  kings,  and  the  national  sanctuary.  Since  its  destruction  (70) 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  there  remain  considerable  ruins  A 
(with  sculpture  and  inscriptions   in    arrow-headed   cha- 
racters),  consisting   partly  of   the  fragments  of  a  royal 
castle,  partly  of  sepulchres  hewn  in  the  rock.     2.  In  the 
vicinity,  Passargada  or  Passargadse  [Deh  Minaur.  Arr.], 
founded  by  Cyrus  in  commemoration  of  his  victory  over 
Astyages  at  this  place  (on  the  river  Cyrus),  the  capital  of 
the  whole  kingdom,  depository  of  the  royal  treasures,  and 
burial  place  of  the  king.1 

2.  Carmania  (Kerman),  on  the  Persian  gulf,  between  B 
Persis  and  Gedrosia. 

3.  Gedrosia,  between  Carmania   and   India,  the  most 
barren  of  all  the  Persian  districts  (with  its  capital,  Pur  a)  \ 
on  the  sea-coast,  the  Ichthyophagi. 

c.  EASTERN  BORDER.  71 

1 .  Arachosia,  a  district  situated  northwards  of  Gedrosia, 
on  the  confines  of  India  (with  the  city  Arachotus),  and 
making  with  Gedrosia  only  one  satrapy. 

2.  The  country  of  the   Paropamisdda,  between   Ara- 
chosia and  Bactriana. 

3.  Indoscythia,  the  eastern  slope  of  the  highlands,  to-  c 
wards  the  valley  of  the  Indus. 

d.  On  the  NORTHERN  BORDER.  "72 

1.  Bactriana,  between  the  country  of  the  Paropami- 
sadse  and  Sogdiana,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  the 
Ox  us  (with  its  capital,  Baclra,  T«  BUXTQU,  now  Balk), 
the  residence  of  the  Zend-people,  who  obey  the  law  of 
Zoroaster. 

2.  Margiana  belonged  in  the  Persian  times  to  Hyrcania,  D 
with  Alexandria  (built  by  Alexander,  then  destroyed,  and 
rebuilt  by  Antiochus  Soter,  under  the   name  of  Anti- 
ochia.) 

3.  Hyrcania,  on  the  Caspian  sea   (capital,  Zeudra- 
k  a  r  t  a  [  Zadracarta  :  Goorgauri]). 

6.    IN  THE  INTERIOR.  73 

1.  Aria  ('Ayta  and  !*tye/<x),  an  extensive  steppe  with 
some  fertile  spots,  a  lake  named  Aria,  and  two  rivers 
(Arius),  and  a  city  (Aria). 

1  Heeren  (Ideen,  i.  1.  269)  and  Tychsen  (in  his  supplement  to 
Heeren's  Ideen,  i.  2,  S.  401)  suppose  Persepolis  to  be  the  translation 
of  the  name  Pasargada. 


48  ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.       [74 — 76.    §21. 

(73)      2.  Parthia  under  the  Persian  and  Macedonian  rule  be- 
A  longed  to  Hyrcania.     The  capital  of  the  Parthian  king- 
dom, founded  by  Arsaces,  was  Hecatompylos. 

3.  Drangiana,  between  Aria,  Gedrosia,  and  Arachosia. 

74  D.   The  Alpine  country  between  Oxus  [Jihon  or  Amoo] 
and  laxartes  [Sir  or  Sihon\t  or  Sogdiana,  the  northern- 
most Persian  province,  which  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  arable  district  and  the  pasture  land  of  the  Nomadic 
tribes,  and  consequently  was  inhabited  partly  by  Sogdiani an 
settlers,  partly  by  Scythian  Nomades.     In  the  southern 

B  district,  which  was  rendered  fertile  by  numerous  canals, 
was  Maracanda  (now  Samarcand  ?),  the  royal  city  of  the 
Sogdianians.  On  the  laxartes,  as  a  defence  against  the 
frequent  inroads  of  the  Scythian  Nomades,  Cyrus  built 
the  fortress  of  Cyreschata  (garrisoned  with  18,000  men), 
and  Alexander  the  Great,  Alexandria  ultima. 

§  21.  HISTORY  OF  THE  PERSIANS. 

75  A.  HISTORY  OF  THE  PERSIANS  BEFORE  CYRUS. 

c  The  Persians,  on  account  of  the  variety  of  their  soil, 
were  partly  Nomades,  partly  agriculturists.  Herodotus 
enumerates  four  Nomadic  herdsmen  castes,  three  agri- 
cultural, and  three  warrior  castes,  who  governed  the  in- 
ferior and  supplied  the  higher  officers  of  state.  The 
most  distinguished  of  these  was  the  tribe  of  the  Pasar- 
gadse,  its  most  illustrious  family  being  that  of  the 
Achaemenidee,  from  which  alone  the  kings  were  chosen. 
The  Persians  had  been  subdued  by  the  Median  king 
Phraortes  (about  640),  but  retained  their  own  kings,  the 
first  of  whom  was  named  Achsemenes.  His  descendant, 
Cambyses,  was  the  father  of  Cyrus,  by  Mandane,  daughter 
of  the  Median  king,  Astyages  (see  77,  sqq.  p.  49). 

76  B.  HISTORY   OF  THE   PERSIANS   FROM   CYRUS   TO  THE 

D  DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  EMPIRE.       558 331. 

1.  Cyrus  (originally  Agradatus),  558 — 529,  became 
by  a  stratagem  leader  of  all  the  Persian  tribes,  and  in 
consequence  of  his  victory  over  Astyages,  at  Pasargadae 
(see  60,  A.),  lord  of  the  whole  Persian  empire,extending 
westwards  as  far  as  the  river  Halys,  which  divided  it  from 
the  kingdom  of  Lydia.  The  Lydian  king  Crcesus,  hoping 
to  avenge  himself  on  Cyrus  for  the  expulsion  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Astyages,  and  interpreting  in  his  own 


77.    §  21.]  ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  49 

favor  the  ambiguous  response  of  an  oracle,  crossed  the  (76) 
Halys,  ravaged  Cappadocia,  and  after  an  indecisive  en-  A 
gagement  (at  Pteria,  not  far  from  Sinope  ?)  retreated  to  his 
capital,  which,  after  a  second  battle,  was  invested,  stormed, 
and  sacked  by  Cyrus.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Lydian 
empire,  Cyrus  sent  Harpagus  to  subdue  the  Greek  cities 
on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  which  were  ready  to  pay 
tribute  provided  their  constitution  were  respected.  Most 
of  them  received  tyrants  under  the  protection  of  the 
Persians,  but  the  inhabitants  of  Phocsea  emigrated  to 
Corsica  (where  they  had  a  short  time  before  founded 
Alalia),  and  being  expelled  thence  by  the  Tyrrhenians  and 
Carthaginians,  retired  to  Lower  Italy. l  At  the  same  time, 
the  Teians  colonized  Abdera,  in  Thrace.  The  Carians  B 
and  Lycians  were  also  subjugated  by  Harpagus  ;  so  that 
the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  or  lower  Asia  belonged  to  the 
Persian  empire. 

Meanwhile  Cyrus  himself  had  subdued  Upper  Asia,  77 
taken  Babylon  after  a  two.  years'  siege  (because  that  city 
had  formed  an  alliance  with  Croesus),  and  put  an  end,  in  the 
year  538  B.  c.  to  the  Babylonian  empire,  which  comprised 
also  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Phoenicia.  The  Jews  were  per- 
mitted by  the  conqueror  to  return  to  their  own  land  (com- 
pare  20,  p.  22.)  For  an  account  of  the  form  of  govern- 
ment established  in  the  conquered  countries  see  94,  B.  (p. 
59.) 

There  are  three  different  accounts  of  the  death  of  Cyrus,  as  well  as  c 
of  his  origin.  1.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  fell  in  battle  with  the 
Massagetae  (northwards  of  the  laxartes?),  and  their  queen,  Tomyris, 
plunged  his  head  into  a  vessel  filled  with  human  blood.  2.  Ctesias 
says  that  he  was  slain  in  a  war  with  the  Sacre  ;  3,  and  Xenophon 
that  he  died  a  natural  death. 

Before  his  death  he  nominated  his  eldest  son  Cam- 
by  s  e  s  to  be  his  successor ;  the  younger,  Smerdis,  being 
appointed  viceroy  (under  his  brother)  of  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  empire,  which  now  extended  from  the  Hellespont 
to  the  borders  of  India.  He  was  buried  atPasargadse 
[or,  Passagardse]. 

1  That  Massilia  (Marseilles)  was  not  originally  founded  by  the 
Phocseans,  who  emigrated  at  that  period,  but  had  been  already  in 
existence  since  the  year  B.  c.  600,  is  clearly  shown  by  Dederich,  in 
the  Rhenish  Museum. 


50  ASIA. — THE   PERSIANS.       [78 — 80.    §21. 

78  2.  Cambyses,  529 — 522,  added  Egypt  and  Libya  to 
A  the  countries  already  subdued  by  his  father. 

According  to  the  narrative  of  Herodotus,  the  cause  of  his  under- 
taking this  expedition  was  a  personal  affront  received  from  Amasis, 
king  of  Egypt,  whose  daughter  he  had  sought  in  marriage,  but  who 
had  sent  him  in  her  stead  the  daughter  of  the  former  king.  Full  of 
indignation  at  this  insult,  Cambyses  crossed  the  Arabian  desert, 
under  the  guidance  of  a  Greek  mercenary  named  Phanes,  and  en- 
tering Egypt,  overthrew  Psammenitus,  the  successor  of  Amasis,  at 
Pelusium,  took  Memphis,  and  made  prisoners  of  the  king  and  his 
family.  The  captive  monarch  was  treated  kindly  for  a  time,  but,  in 
consequence  of  an  attempted  insurrection,  was  afterwards  put  to 
death  by  being  compelled  to  drink  ox's  blood  (?).  The  Libyans  and 
Cyrenians  bordering  on  Egypt,  surrendered  themselves  voluntarily  to 
the  conqueror. 

79  Expedition  against  Ethiopia  and  Ammonium. — The  plan 
B  of  Cambyses,  for  extending  his  conquests  in  Africa  by  the 

subjugation  of  the  Carthaginians,  Ammonians,  and  Ethio- 
pians, was  rendered  abortive  by  the  refusal  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians to  lend  him  a  fleet  for  the  attack  on  Carthage,  and 
by  the  destruction  of  an  army  which  he  had  sent  against 
the  Ammonians.  This  force  was  overwhelmed  by  the 
shifting  sands  of  the  desert ;  whilst  another  division, 
which  he  was  leading  in  person  against  the  Ethiopians, 
was  compelled  to  return  for  want  of  provisions. 

C  After  his  return  to  Memphis,  Cambyses,  meeting  a  solemn  proces- 
sion of  the  worshippers  of  Apis,  caused  the  priests  to  be  scourged, 
wounded  and  overthrew  the  god,  insulted  his  temples  and  sacred 
rites,  and  committed  various  other  extravagant  acts.  Having  dreamt 
that  his  brother  Smerdis  had  usurped  his  throne,  he  caused  him  to  be 
assassinated  by  Prexaspes,  married  two  of  his  own  sisters,  and  killed 
one  of  them  with  a  kick  ;  slew  the  son  of  Prexaspes  with  an  arrow, 
ordered  twelve  of  the  principal  Persians  to  be  buried  alive,  com- 
manded Croesus,  who  had  ventured  to  remonstrate  with  him,  to  bo 
put  to  death,  and  slew  his  servants  for  neglecting  to  execute  the 
sentence. 

D  Return  to  Persia  and  death. — The  death  of  Smerdia 
having  been  kept  a  profound  secret  in  Persis,  a  Magian*, 
of  the  same  name,  who  also  closely  resembled  him  in  per- 
son, had  ascended  the  throne.  On  receiving  intelligence 
of  this  treason,  Cambyses  hastened  his  return  to  Persis, 
and  died  at  Agbatana,  in  Syria,  in  consequence  of  a  wound 
in  the  thigh.  He  left  no  children. 

80  3.  P  seudo-S  me  rd  is,  522,  who  endeavored  to  render  his 
usurpation  popular  by  dispensing  with  military  service  and 


81,82.    §21.]          ASIA.— THE    PERSIANS.  51 

remitting  the  taxes  for  three  years,  was  discovered  in  the  (80) 
seventh  month  of  his  reign,  (in  consequence  of  having  lost  A 
his  ears  ?)  and,  with  many  other  Magi,  put  to  death  by  a 
conspiracy  of  seven  of  the  chief  Persians.      A  festival, 
termed  T«  ^ua/oqpoVm,  was  instituted  in  commemoration  of 
this  event.     After  a  discussion  among  the  conspirators  re- 
specting the  best  form  of  constitution,  it  was  resolved  to 
retain  the  monarchy,  and 

4.  Darius  I.  ascended  the  throne,  by  the  contrivance;  81 
says  the  legend,  of  his  master  of  the  horse.      This  king, 
who  was  the   son   of  Hystaspes,  of  the  race  of  Achae-  3 
menes,1    married  two  of  the  daughters   of   Cyrus   and 
one  of  the  real  Smerdis  (521 — 485).      To  him  the  king- 
dom was  indebted  for  a  better  organization,  the  whole 
country  being  divided  into  twenty  satrapies,  each  of  which 
had  a  civil  governor  termed  a  satrap,  and  a  commander -in- 
chief  for  military  affairs. 

These  satraps,  who  were  generally  relations  of  the  king,  were  Q2 
charged  with  the  collection  of  the  revenue,  and  the  promotion  of 
agriculture.  They  were  assisted  by  royal  secretaries  (ypa^cmoTni), 
who  received  the  commands  of  the  king  through  messengers,  and 
communicated  them  to  the  satraps.  These  messengers  performed 
the  journey  very  rapidly  by  means  of  stations,  placed  at  the  distance 
of  a  day's  journey  from  each  other.  The  civil  and  military  adminis- 
tration of  each  province,  as  well  as  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  were 
inspected  every  year  either  by  the  king  in  person,  or  by  royal  com- 
missioners, and  always  at  the  head  of  an  army, 

Financial  administration. — From  each  of  the  provinces,  except  c 
Persis,  a  tribute  was  raised,  which  was  paid  in  the  precious  metals, 
generally  in  an  uncoined  state.  After  providing  for  the  expenditure 
of  their  own  establishments  (which  were  modelled  on  that  of  the 
king),  the  support  of  the  standing  army,  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
various  provincial  officers,  the  balance  was  forwarded  by  the  satraps 
to  the  royal  exchequer.  Another  source  of  revenue  were  the  pre- 

Cyrus,  great-grandson  of  Achaemenes. 
Teispes. 


Cambyses  with  Mandane.  Armnes. 

Cyrus,  king.  Arsamis. 

I 


Cambyses,  Smerdis,  Atossa,  Artystona.  Hystaspes. 

Parmys.  Darius  I.  marries 

Atossa,  Artystona,  and 
Parmys. 


52  ASIA. — THE    PERSIANS.  [83.    §21. 

(82)  sents  made  by  the  courtiers  and  satraps,  c6nsisting  of  costly  objects 
£  of  various  descriptions.  The  inferior  officials  received  their  remu- 
neration in  kind,  and  those  of  a  higher  rank  were  rewarded  with 
estates.  Personages  of  the  most  exalted  station,  such  as  the  wives 
and  mothers  of  the  kings,  had  a  separate  district  assigned  to  them 
for  the  supply  of  their  wants. 

The  conquests  of  the  Persians  having  reached  the 
ocean  southwards,  and  been  arrested  on  the  north  by  the 
resistance  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Steppes,  Darius  under, 
took  the  extension  of  his  empire  in  a  westerly  and  easterly 
direction. 

Liberation  of  Samos. — Syloson  of  Samos,  who  had  presented  a 
purple  mantle  to  Darius  when  he  was  at  Memphis,  obtained  from  him 
in  return  the  power  of  delivering  his  native  city  from  a  tyrant  (the 
secretary  of  the  murdered  Polycrates,  the  brother  of  Syloson). 

83  Reduction  of  the  revolted  province  of  Babylon. — After  a 
B  siege  of  twenty  months,  Babylon  was  taken  (through  the 
cunning,  it  is  said,  of  Zopyrus) ;  3000  of  the  principal 
Babylonians  were  crucified  ;  and  Zopyrus,  as  a  reward, 
was  invested  with  the  satrapy  of  Babylon,  of  which  he 
received  the  whole  revenue  for  the  term  of  his  life. 

Expedition  against  the  Scythians,  on  account  of  their 
former  invasion  of  Media.  Darius,  at  the  head  of  700,000 
men,  crossed  the  Thracian  Bosporus  into  Europe,  sub- 
dued the  Getae  and  Thracians,  and  passed  the  Ister,  leaving 
behind  him  the  lonians  to  guard  the  bridge  which  he  had 
c  built  over  that  river.  The  Scythians  retreated  before  him, 
laying  waste  the  land  as  they  went,  so  that  Darius  was 
compelled  by  want  of  provisions  to  return  without  accom- 
plishing his  purpose.  Meanwhile  the  Scythians,  supported 
by  Miltiades  (the  Athenian),  had  been  tampering  with  the 
lonians  who  were  left  in  charge  of  the  bridge,  which  was  only 
saved  from  destruction  by  the  strenuous  remonstrances  of 
Histiaeus  of  Miletus.  On  the  march  back,  Megabazus,  the 
Persian  general,  subdued  the  Thracian  sea-coast,  and  re- 
ceived from  Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia,  earth  and  water 
in  token  of  submission.  (The  Paeonians  were  transplanted 
from  Thrace  into  Phrygia.) 

D  Expedition  to  India. — Darius,  having  previously  dis- 
patched Scylax  (of  Caryandes)  on  a  voyage  of  discovery 
down  the  Indus,  entered  that  country  in  person  and  sub- 
dued a  part  of  it. 

An  expedition  into  Libya,  undertaken  by  the  Persian  viceroy  of 


84,85.    §21.]          ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  53 

Egypt,  ended  in  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Barca  and  the  removal  of  A 
its  inhabitants  to  Bactria. 

THE  WARS  WITH  GREECE,  500 — 449.  84 

Insurrection  of  the  lonians,  500 — 494. — Histineus,  tyrant 
of  Miletus,  who  had  been  rewarded  with  a  grant  of  land  in 
Thrace,  for  his  good  service  in  preserving  the  bridge,  had  no 
sooner  laid  the  foundations  of  a  city  in  that  quarter,  than  he 
became  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  king,  and  was  recalled 
to  Susa,  his  son-in-law  Aristagoras  being  nominated  tyrant 
of  Miletus  in  his  room.  The  failure  of  an  attempt  on  Naxos 
having  rendered  the  security  of  this  appointment  preca- 
rious, Aristagdras,  in  conjunction  with  Histiseus,  persuaded 
the  lonians  to  rise  against  the  Persian  government,  and 
visited  Greece  in  person,  for  the  purpose  of  soliciting  co- 
operation, but  could  only  obtain  a  small  subsidy  of  ships 
from  Athens  and  Eretria.  Sardes,  it  is  true,  fell  without  B 
striking  a  blow,  and  was  utterly  destroyed  by  fire  ;  but  the 
lonians  were  overthrown  by  a  Persian  land  force,  and 
being  abandoned  by  the  Greeks,  were  gradually  reduced 
(after  the  conquest  of  their  fleet  off  the  island  of  Lade, 
opposite  Miletus),  and  the  inhabitants  of  Miletus  trans- 
planted to  the  interior  of  Asia.  Aristagoras  was  slain  in 
Thrace.  The  participation  of  the  European  Greeks  in 
this  insurrection  of  the  lonians,  hastened  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Persian  wars,  which  were  soon  afterwards  un- 
dertaken for  the  conquest  of  Greece. 

The  first  expedition  against  Greece  (in  492)  was  con-  85 
ducted  by  Mardonius,  satrap  of  Asia  Minor,  who  subdued  c 
the  Macedonians  ;  but  his  fleet,  after  taking  Thasos,  having 
been  wrecked  off  Mount  Athos,  and  his  land  forces  cut  to 
pieces  in  Thrace,  he  was  compelled  to  return.  Darius, 
acting  under  the  influence  of  the  exiled  Athenian  Hippias, 
and  the  Spartan  king  Demaratus,  having  ineffectually 
called  on  the  Grecian  cities  to  acknowledge  his  authority, 
a  second  expedition  was  undertaken  in  490,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Datis  and  Artaphernes.  These  generals  sailed  to 
Euboea  with  an  enormous  fleet,  took  Eretria  by  treachery, 
and  having  crossed  the  channel  into  Attica  by  the  advice 
of  Hippias,  drew  up  their  forces,  which  amounted  to 
100,000  men,  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  where  they 
were  completely  defeated  by  a  little  army  of  9000  Athe- 
nians and  1000  Platseans  (29th  of  September),  under  the 


54  ASIA. — THE   PERSIANS.         [86,87.    §21. 

(85)  command  of  Miltiades,  and  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
A  on  Athens  returned  to  Asia.     Darius  died  in  the  midst  of 
preparations  for  a  fresh  expedition,  which  had  been  inter- 
rupted by  an  insurrection  of  the  Egyptians. 

5.  He  was  succeeded  by  XERXES!.  (485 — 465),  his  son 
by  his  second  wife,  Atossa,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Cyrus. 
Having  reduced  Egypt  to  submission,  the  new  king  collected 
the  forces  of  his  immense  empire  for  a  third  expedition  against 
Greece.  A  land  army  of  1,700,000  men  was  assembled 
at  Critala,  in  Cappadocia,  and  a  fleet  of  1207  ships  of 
Phoenicia  and  Asia  Minor,  collected  in  the  Ionian  harbors 
of  Cyme  and  Phocaea. 

B  A  canal  dug  through  the  isthmus  of  Mount  Athos  (?) — the  bridges 
over  the  Hellespont  destroyed  by  a  storm — the  sea  scourged — two 
new  bridges  constructed — Sardes  revolts — first  review  of  the  troops 
at  Abydos  on  the  Hellespont — the  bridges  crossed  by  the  army  in 
seven  days  and  seven  nights — second  review,  and  numbering  of  the 
army  at  Doriscus  in  Thrace.  Thirlwall,  chs.  15,  16.  Grote,  cha.  38 
to  42,  inclusive. 

86  The  land  army  continued  its  march  through  Thrace, 
Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  until  it  reached  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae,  where  Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta,  with  300 
Spartans  and  4900  other  Greeks,  courageously  withstood 
the  millions  of  Xerxes,  but,  being  betrayed  by  Ephialtes,  was 
slain,  with  all  his  Spartans  and  700  Thespians,  who  had 

c  voluntarily  remained  with  him.  The  Persian  army  then 
advanced  without  opposition  into  Attica,  and  burnt  Athens. 
Meanwhile  their  naval  commanders,  after  an  indecisive  en- 
gagement off  the  promontory  of  Artemisium  with  the 
Greek  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Eurybiades,  had  dis- 
patched a  fleet  of  200  sail  round  Euboea  into  the  Eurlpus, 
for  the  purpose  of  inclosing  the  Greeks  ;  but  the  ships  of 

D  this  detachment  were  scattered  by  a  storm.  A  second  in- 
decisive engagement  then  took  place  off  Artemisium  on 
the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Thermopylae  ;  after  which 
the  Greek  fleet  retired  to  S  a  1  a  m  i  s.  Here,  by  a  stratagem 
of  Themistocles,  the  Greeks  were  forced  into  an  engage- 
ment, which  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Persians 
(23d  of  September,  480)  and  their  return  to  Persia. 
Xerxes  hastily  recrossed  the  Hellespont  (induced  by  a  fresh 
stratagem  of  Themistocles),  leaving  Mardonius  in  Thessa- 
ly with  an  army  of  300,000  men. 

87  Campaign  of  Mardonius  in  479. — After  fruitless  nego- 


88,89.    §21.]  ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  55 

tiations  with  the  Athenians  (through  Alexander  of  Mace-  (87) 
donia),  Mardonius  advanced  into  Attica  and  took  Athens,  A 
which  had  been  abandoned   by  the  inhabitants ;  but,  on 
the  approach  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  he  retreated   into 
Boeotia,  where  he  was  slain  in  an  engagement  at  Platseae 
(25th  of  September,  479),  in  which  the  army  of  the  Per- 
sians was  utterly  routed  by  the  Athenians  under  Aristides, 
and  the  Lacedaemonians  under  Pausanias.      The  Persian 
camp  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

On  the  same  day  the  Persians  were  defeated  at  M y  c al e,  B 
in  Asia  Minor  (where  they  had  formed  a  bulwark  of  their 
ships  hauled  up  on  the  land),  by  the  Spartan  king,  Leoty- 
chides,  and  the  Athenian,  Xanthippus.  Their  camp  and  fleet 
were  utterly  destroyed,  and  thus  Ionia  was  delivered  from 
her  oppressors.  After  this  victory  the  Greeks  commenced 
a  war  of  aggression  against  the  Persians.  Pausanias  and 
Aristides  subdued  the  greater  part  of  the  island  of  Cyprus 
and  Byzantium ;  Cimon  expelled  the  Persians  from  Thrace, 
Caria,  and  Lycia,  and  defeated  both  their  fleet  and  army 
on  the  river  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia1  (469). 

Xerxes  was  murdered  by  Artabanus,  the  captain  of  hisc 
body-guard,  together  with  his  eldest  son,  Darius.      The 
crown,  in  consequence,  descended  to  his  second  son. 

6.  ARTAXERXES  I.  (//ax^o/f^  [Longimanus] — also  Ar- 
taxerxes),  465—424. 

War  with  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks. — Second  revolt  of  88 
the  Egyptians  under  the  Libyan  prince  Inarus,  who  beat  the 
Persian  army  with  the  aid  of  the  Athenians,  but,  being  soon 
afterwards  conquered  by  Megabyzus  (son  of  Zopyrus), 
Inarus  capitulated,  together  with  the  Greeks,  who  were 
blockaded  by  the  enemy  in  Prosopitis,  an  island  of  the 
Nile.  One  prince  alone,  Amyrtoeus,  still  maintained  his 
position  in  the  marshes  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile.  The  D 
war  was  prosecuted  by  the  Greeks  under  the  command  of 
Cimon,  whose  fleet  and  army  were  victorious  (after  his 
death)  at  Salamis  in  Cyprus  (B.  c.  449). 

First  revolt  of  the  satraps. — Artaxerxes  having  put  to  89 
death  Inarus  and  the  Greek  prisoners,  for  whose  safety 
Megabyzus  had  pledged  his  word,  the  satrap  threw  off  his 

1  The  pretended  peace  of  Cimon  (placed  by  some  in  469,  by  others 
449),  but  which,  if  real,  Thuc.  i.  112,  must  have  mentioned,  has  been 
fully  discussed  by  Dahlmann,  Kruger  [and  Thirlwall,  iii.  p.  37]. 
Grote,  ch.  45,  shows  that  a  convention  was  actually  made,  and  ac- 
counts on  good  grounds  for  the  silence  of  Thucydides. 
4 


56  ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  [90.    §  21. 

(89)  allegiance,  conquered  the  royal  forces,  and  prescribed  his 
A  own  terms  to  the  king.  From  this  period  there  were  fre- 
quent revolts  of  the  satraps,  occasioned  by  the  over- 
weening power  of  the  governors  of  provinces,  who  not 
only  united  in  their  own  persons  the  civil  and  military 
authority,  but  were  sometimes  lords  of  several  satrapies. 
Their  rebellious  projects  were  also  favored  by  the  foreign 
wars.  Hence  arose  new  independent  kingdoms  (Cappa- 
docia,  Pontus).  The  employment  at  the  same  time  of 
mercenary  troops,  chiefly  Greeks,  hastened  the  de- 
generation of  the  once-warlike  Persians  into  luxurious  and 
B  effeminate  cowards.  Artaxerxes,  who  during  the  whole 
of  his  life  had  been  the  slave  of  his  mistresses,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  only  legitimate  son, 

7.  XERXES  II.,  who  was  murdered,  after  a  reign  of  forty- 
five  days,  by  his  illegitimate  brother, 

8.  SOGDIANUS.  This  king,  after  reigning  six  months,  was 
also  assassinated  by  another  illegitimate  brother,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  under  the  name  of 

c  9.  DARIUS  II.— NOTHUS  (424— 405). '  During  his 
reign  there  were  repeated  revolts  of  the  satraps,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  king's  subserviency  to  his  wife  Parysatis. 
The  Egyptians,  also,  under  Amyrtseus,  for  the  third  time 
renounced  their  allegiance,  and  retained  their  independence 
under  kings  of  their  own  for  a  period  of  sixty- four  years. 

10.  ARTAXERXES  II.  MNEMOX  (405—362). 
90  War  with  his  brother  Cyrus. — His  younger  brother, 
Cyrus,  the  favorite  of  his  mother,  and  satrap  of  the  whole 
of  Asia,  endeavored  to  establish  his  right  to  the  succes- 
sion, as  being  the  first-born  son  of  his  father  after  he  had 
ascended  the  throne  ;  and  for  this  purpose  assembled  in 
Asia  a  large  body  of  mercenary  troops,  under  pretence  of 
leading  them  against  the  Pisidians,  who  were  still  unsub- 

D  dued.  Being  supported  by  the  Spartans,  to  whom  he  had 
furnished  subsidies  of  money  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  Cyrus  advanced  without  opposition  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates,  where  Artaxerxes,  who  had  received  seasonable 
information  from  Tissaphernes,  the  deputy-governor  of 
Ionia,  met  his  brother  with  an  army  of  nearly  a  million 
soldiers  (?).  Cyrus  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  in  401  ; 

1  According   to   Clinton  (Fast.  Hell.),  Artaxerxes   II.   probably 
ascended  the  throne  in  Dec.  405. 


91,92.    §21.]         ASIA. THE    PERSIANS.  57 

and  the  Greek  auxiliaries,  who  had  successfully  resisted  (90) 
the  enemy,  and  still  numbered  10,000  men,  retreated  in  A 
good  order  under  the  command  of  Xendphon,  and,  after 
encountering  indescribable  hardships,  at  last  reached  Asia 
Minor  in  safety. 

War  with  Sparta. — Tissaphernes,  who  had  been  re-  91 
warded  for  his  fidelity  with  the  province  formerly  governed 
by  Cyrus,  having  punished  the  Jonians  for  their  share  in 
the  rebellion,  the  Spartans  prepared  to  support  them.  Con- 
siderable progress  was  made  in  the  liberation  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  by  the  Spartan  general,  Dercyllidas,  and  particu- 
larly by  their  king,  Age  si  la  us;  but  their  plans  were 
frustrated  by  the  satrap  Tithraustes  (successor  of  Tissa- 
phernes, who  had  been  murdered  at  the  instigation  of 
Parysatis).  This  crafty  politician  contrived,  by  bribing  B 
the  democratical  party  in  Thebes,  Corinth,  and  Argos,  to 
establish  in  those  cities  a  league  (which  was  afterwards 
joined  by  Athens),  for  the  express  purpose  of  resisting  the 
Spartan  Hegemony,  and  thus  to  transfer  the  war  from  Asiato 
Greece  (see  §  67 — 3) .  The  Spartan  general,  Lysander, 
having  fallen  in  an  engagement  with  the  allies  at  Haliartus, 
Agesilaus  was  recalled  from  Asia  to  take  the  command  in 
this  Corinthian  war.  In  the  year  394,  the  Persians,  under 
the  command  of  Con  on,  an  Athenian  refugee,  having 
annihilated  the  Spartan  fleet  off  Cn id  us,  in  Caria,  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  again  gradually  lost  their  inde- 
pendence, and  in  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (387),  were 
abandoned,  with  Cyprus,  to  the  dominion  of  the  Persians. 

An  attempt  to  reconquer  Egypt  miscarried  through  the  disunion  c 
of  the  commanders,  Iphicrates  and  Pharnabazus.  A  general  rebel- 
lion of  the  satraps  of  Asia  was  betrayed  by  one  of  their  body,  and 
crushed.  Artaxerxes  had  nominated  as  his  successor  his  eldest  son, 
Darius  ;  but  this  prince  having  been  put  to  death  for  conspiring 
against  his  father,  the  king  appointed  Ocnus,  who  soon  poisoned  his 
benefactor,  and  ascended  the  Persian  throne,  under  the  name  of 

11.  ARTAXERXES  III.  (362 — 338). 

War  with  the  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians. — The  Phoe-  92 
nicians  having  expelled  the  Persians  from  their  cities  and 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Egyptians,  Artaxerxes  took 
Sidon  (through  the  treachery  of  their  own  king,  Tennes), 
the  inhabitants  having  previously  set  fire  to  the  city.  The 
rest  of  Phoenicia  submitted  voluntarily  to  his  authority. 
Artaxerxes,  then,  with  the  assistance  of  his  Greek  auxi- 


58  ASIA. — THE    PERSIANS.        [93,  94.    §  22. 

(92)  liaries,  overthrew  the  Egyptians  at  Pelusium,  and  com- 
A  pelled  the  country,  after  sixty-four  years  of  independence, 
again  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  Persia.     Their  king, 
Nectanebus,  fled  to  Ethiopia. 

Artaxerxes,  whose  cruelty  had  rendered  him  universally 
odious,  was  poisoned  by  the  Egyptian  Bagoas  (by  whom 
he  was  entirely  governed),  together  with  all  his  sons,  ex- 
cept the  youngest. 

12.  ARSES  (338 — 336),  who  was  placed  on  the  throne 
by  Bagoas,  and  murdered  by  him  at  the  end  of  two  years. 
A  great-grandson  of  Darius  Nothus, 

B  13.  DARIUS  HI.CoDOMANNUs(336 — 330),  was  then  made 
king,  and  Bagoas,  who  had  intended  to  put  him  to  death, 
was  compelled  himself  to  drink  the  poison  which  he  had 
prepared  for  his  master.  The  new  monarch  was  unable  to 
avert  the  ruin  of  the  Persian  empire,  which,  since  tne 
Greek  wars,  had  been  gradually  falling  into  decay.  He 
was  vanquished  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  three  battles — 
on  the  Granlcus,  334;  at  Issus,  333  ;  and  at  Guagamela  in 
331 ;  and  at  last  taken  prisoner  by  his  own  satraps,  and 
murdered  by  Bessus  in  330  (see  §  76). 

CAUSES  OF  THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE. — 1.  The  ex- 
haustion occasioned  by  the  expenditure  of  men  and  money  in  the 
expeditions  against  Europe.  2.  The  introduction  of  mercenary 
troops,  and  the  consequent  frequency  of  wars  and  degeneracy  of  the 
Persians.  3.  The  insurrections  of  the  satraps,  whose  power  had 
become  enormous  since  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I.  4.  To  cor- 
ruption of  court  morals,  produced  by  the  influence  of  women  and 
eunuchs. 

§  22.  Religion,  fyc.  of  the  Persians. 

93  1 .  The  RELIGION  of  the  Persians  was  a  worship  of  nature, 
c  according  in  all  essential  particulars  with  the  doctrine  of 

Zoroaster.  They  adored  the  sky  as  the  supreme  god- 
head ;  together  with  the  sun  and  moon,  some  of  the  planets 
(particularly  Venus,  under  the  name  of  Mitra),  the  earth, 
fire,  water,  the  winds,  &c.  Like  the  Medes,  they  offered 
up  their  prayers,  not  in  temples,  but  in  the  open  air.  The 
priestly  caste  of  the  Magi,  after  the  conquest  of  Media, 
transferred  itself,  with  all  its  influence,  to  the  Persian  court. 

94  2.  The  CONSTITUTION  was  also  borrowed  from  the  Medes, 
and,  like  all  other  eastern  governments,  was  despotic.    The 
"  Great  King,"  whose  power  was  circumscribed  only  by 
the  laws  of  Zoroaster  and  a  court  ceremonial  invented  by 


95,  96.    §22.]          ASIA. THE    PHOENICIANS.  59 

the  Magi,  was  considered  sole  proprietor  both  of  the  land  (94) 
and  people,  and  was  entitled  to  receive  tribute  (called  A 
"  a  present  "  until  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes)  from  the 
conquered  provinces.  In  his  palaces  (nvlai)  at  Susa, 
Babylon,  and  Ecbatana,  which  were  occupied  alternately 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  the  king  was  sur- 
rounded not  only  by  officers  of  the  court  (the  king's  *  eyes ' 
and  *  ears  '),  through  whom  all  communications  were  con- 
veyed to  him,  but  also  by  a  numerous  army,  consisting 
chiefly  of  cavalry.  In  addition  to  the  power  of  the  Magi, 
the  ladies  of  the  seraglio,  and  the  eunuchs  by  whom  it  was 
guarded,  exercised  an  influence  not  only  over  the  adminis- 
tration of  public  affairs,  but  even  over  the  succession  to 
the  throne. 

To  secure  the  possession  of  conquered  countries — 1 .  Standing  B 
armies  were  left,  which  were  entirely  supported  by  the  inhabitants  ; 
2,  the  people  were  transplanted  into  other  countries  ;  3,  warlike 
nations  were  compelled  to  become  luxurious  and  effeminate,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Lydians,  who  were  thus  treated  by  Cyrus  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Croasus.  The  constitution  in  the  conquered  cities  was 
suffered  to  remain  unchanged  ;  their  dependence  on  Persia  being 
recognized  in  the  performance  of  particular  services  as  vassals — 
viz.,  the  payment  of  tributes  in  gold  and  silver  for  the  use  of  the 
court  and  the  satraps,  the  support  of  the  standing  army,  contingents 
in  time  of  war,  and  certain  presents. 

For  the  division  and  organization  of  the  empire   by  c 
Darius  I.,  see  §  21. 

3.  Of  SCIENCE  we  find  scarcely  any  trace  among  the  95 
Persians,  their  whole  literature  being  confined  to  the 
writings  of  Zoroaster,  in  the  Zend  language — borrowed 
from  the  Medes — and  a  few  works,  on  the  subject  of  his 
religion,  in  the  Pehlevi  language.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
ruins  of  the  royal  palace  at  Persepolis  display  considerable 
remains  of  architecture,  exceedingly  perfect,  as  regards  the 
mechanical  part,  and  of  sculpture,  which  seems,  however, 
to  have  confined  itself  to  works  in  relievo.  Both  are  dis- 
inguished  by  great  simplicity. 

VII.  THE  PHOENICIANS. 

SOURCES    OF   INFORMATION. — Native. — In    the   larger  cities  were  96 
archives,  containing  annals  and    notices    respecting   the    most  im-  D 
portant  events,  from  which  Sanchoniathon,  about  the  year  1250  (?), 
compiled  a  Pho3nician  and  Egyptian  history  in  nine  books,  written  in 
the  PhcEnician  language,  which  was  afterwards  translated  into  Greek 
by  Philo  of  Byblus.     (Of  this  work  only  a  fragment  has  been  pre- 
served  by  Eusebius.)     Hebrew — the   Bible,  especially  the   prophet 


60  ASIA. THE    PHOENICIANS.     [97 99.    §23,24. 

A  EZEKIEL.  Greek —  Menanderof  Ephesus, and  D i u s, a  Phoenician, 
compiled  a  history  of  Tyre  from  Tyrian  annals  (of  which  fragments 
are  found  in  Josephus  and  Syncellus),  Herodotus,  and  D  iodorus. 
[For  Sanconiathon,  see  a  Dissertation  of  Goguet,  Origin  of  Laws, 
&c.,  vol.  i.]  Mod.  Grote,  ch.  18.  Heeren,  vol.  2.  Eliot,  ch.  5. 

§  23.   Geography  of  Phoenicia. 

97  Phoenicia  (so  named  from  the  nnmber  of  palm-trees 
(jpolvixe^  on  its  coasts)  consisted  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
on  the  Syrian  coast,  between  Aradu  s  and  Tyre  (twenty- 
five  miles  in  length  and  four  to  five  in  breadth),  abounding 
in  harbors  and  full  of  lofty  mountains ;    most  of  which 
are  comprehended  under  the  name  of  Libanon,  and  pro- 
duced timber  for  ship-building   and  the  construction  of 
houses.     A  cluster  of  islands,  lying  close  to  the  coast, 
were  studded  with  towns  as  thickly  as  the  continent  itself. 

B  TOWNS  from  the  north  to  the  south. — 1.  A  r  ad  us,  on 
an  island,  and  opposite  to  it  on  the  continent.  2.  Anta- 
radus.  3.  Tripolis,  consisting  of  three  towns  founded 
by  Aradus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon.  4.  Sidon,  the  most 
ancient  of  the  Phoenician  cities,  and  the  mother  country  of 
'  several  foreign  colonies.  5.  Ty  r e  (in  the  Bible  Zor  [ Tsor 
or  Tsur],  called  by  Virgil  also  Sarra),  consisting  of  the  old 
town  built  by  the  Sidonians  on  the  continent,  and  the  new 
city  founded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  old,  with  a  double 
port.  During  the  siege  of  the  old  town  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, many  of  the  inhabitants  took  refuge  here  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  new  Tyre  increased  in  importance, 
whilst  the  old  town  gradually  declined.  After  its  conquest 
by  Alexander,  the  new  town  also  fell  into  decay.  6. 
Ptolemais,  or  Accon  (now  S.  Jean  d'Acre). 

§  24.  Foreign  Settlements  of  the  Phoenicians. 

98  The  usual  motives  for  founding  colonies  are — 1.    To 
c  establish  a  secure  intercourse  with  distant  and  particularly 

with  uncultivated  countries.  2.  To  prevent  too  rapid  an  in- 
crease of  the  poor,  and  thus  to  anticipate  violent  revolu- 
tions. 3.  When,  during  intestine  disturbances,  the  weaker 
party  emigrates,  either  voluntarily  or  by  compulsion,  and 
settles  itself  elsewhere. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PHOENICIAN  COLONIES. 

99  1.  On  the  Islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  well  on  the 
larger— viz.,  Cyprus  and  Crete — as  the  smaller — viz.,  the 


100,  101.    §25.]       ASIA. THE    PH03NICIANS.  61 

Sporades  and  Cyclades — and  northwards  as  far  as  the  Hel-  (99) 
lespont,  especially  on  Thasus,  for  the  sake  of  its  rich  gold-  A 
mines.  There  were  also  still  more  distant  settlements  on 
the  coast  of  Sicily,  especially  Panormus  and  Motye,  and 
afterwards  Lilybseum  (at  a  later  period  Greek  settlements 
were  formed  in  these  islands) ;  and  on  Sardinia  and  the 
Balearic  islands,  which  served  for  a  harbor  of  refuge  on 
the  voyage  from  Phoenicia  to  Spain.  2.  On  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa — Utica,  Carthage,  (KuQ%rfiuv)  Adru- 
metum,  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Leptis,  &c.  3.  Spain,  B 
especially  its  southern  coast,  was  a  favorite  locality  for  the 
establishment  of  Phoenician  colonies ;  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  were  Tarsis,  or  Tartessus,  Carteia, 
Gadia,  or  Gades,  the  pillars  of  Hercules  (two  rocks  now 
occupied  by  Gibraltar  and  Ceuta),  Malaca,  and  His- 
palis.  There  were,  however,  more  than  200  places  in 
Spain  which  claimed  a  Phoenician  origin.  4.  On  the 
western  coast  of'  Africa,  300  cities,  as  it  is  pretended  (?),  all 
founded  by  Tyre;  on  tne  Fortunate  (i.  e.  Canary)  islands 
and  Madeira.  5.  In  the  Persian  gulf,  on  the  islands 
Tyrus,  or  Tylus,  and  A  r  ad  us  (the  Bahrein  islands). 

In  Egypt  an  entire  quarter  of  Memphis  was  inhabited  by  Phceni-  c 
cian  merchants.     Whether  the  colony  of  Cadmus  came  to  Thebes 
from  Phoenicia  is  still  doubtful  (compare  &31,  b.  p.  115). 

The  date  of  these  settlements  can  only  be  fixed  generally.  ifjQ 
Most  of  them  were  probably  founded  in  the  palmy  days 
of  the  mother  city,  Tyre ;  that  is  to  say,  during  the  period 
from  Hiram  to  Cyrus  (1000—550). 

Their  relation  to  the  mother  country. — The  Phoenicians,  unlike 
their  descendants  the  Carthaginians,  do  not  seem  to  have  possessed 
the  art  of  retaining  their  colonies  in  a  state  of  dependence.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  defect,  which  was  the  result  of  their  extended  colo- 
nial system,  and  the  great  distance  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother 
country,  their  mutual  relation  was  limited  to  commercial  intercourse, 
the  celebration  of  feasts  in  honor  of  their  common  gods,  and  the 
offering  of  sacrifices  by  ambassadors  sent  for  that  purpose  from  the 
colonies  to  the  mother  city. 

§  25.  Fragments  of  Pfi(Knician  History. 

The  Phoenicians  belonged  to  that  race  of  Shem  which  101 
spread  itself  over  the  whole  of  western  Asia,  and  of  which,  D 
long  before  the  existence  of  historical  records,  individual 
hordes  had  overrun  Syria  from  the  north,  or  Arabia  from 


62  ASIA. THE    PHOENICIANS.       [102,   103.    §25. 

(101)  the  south,  straggling  by  degrees  into  Canaan,  (i.  e.  the 
A  low  country  in  contradistinction  to  Aram,  the  highlands,) 
where  they  established  themselves  in  settled  habitations. 
From  these  they  were  expelled  by  the  invasions  of 
Nomadic  tribes,  and  especially  by  the  immigration  of  the 
Israelites,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  neighboring 
countries  and  islands,  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea-shore  alone 
being  able  to  maintain  themselves  in  their  fortified  cities 
and  the  little  islands  immediately  adjoining  their  line  of 
B  coast.  In  very  ancient  times,  this  little  territory  was 
governed  by  one  king,  who  resided  first  at  Tyre,  and 
subsequently  (after  Hiram  ?)  at  Sidon,  but  after  the  sepa- 
ration of  Sidon  from  Tyre  in  the  time  of  Salmanassar  each 
city  had  its  own  king.  The  history  -of  the  two  more 
powerful  states  or  cities  is  very  imperfect.  Of  the  others 
we  know  nothing. 

102  FROM    THE    HISTORY  OF    SIDON. — Sidon  (named  after    the    first- 
born son  of  Canaan)  is  mentioned  as  a  great  city  in  the  days  of 
Joshua,  and  is  celebrated  by  Homer  as  the  most  renowned  of  all  the 
cities  of  the  earth  for  its  works  of  art.     It  was  already  famous  for 
its  navigation  and  trade  in  amber,  but  notorious  also  for  the  piracy 

C  practised  by  its  inhabitants.  Among  its  earliest  foreign  settlements 
were  Thebes  (founded  by  Cadmus  in  1500),  and  Utica  (about 
1 100).  About  the  year  B  c.  700,  Sidon  surrendered  to  the  Assyrian 
king,  Salmanassar,  (see  §  15,)  and  after  the  dissolution  of  the  As- 
syrian empire,  became  subject  to  Babylon,  and  was  destroyed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  as  a  punishment  for  having  formed  an  alliance  with 
Judah.  Under  the  dominion  of  Persia  it  seems  to  have  become 
again  prosperous,  and  took  the  lead  in  an  insurrection  against 
Artaxerxes  III.,  which  ended  in  its  ruin  a  second  time  ;  the  city, 
which  had  been  surrendered  to  the  Persians  through  the  treachery 
of  its  own  king,  Tennes,  having  been  set  on  fire  by  the  inhabitants 
themselves.  After  its  restoration,  it  became  subject  to  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  received  a  new  king  at  his  hands. 

103  FROM  THE  HISTORY   OF  TYRE. — Tyre  was  founded     at  an  early 
period  by  Sidon,  which    it   soon   surpassed    in  wealth  and  power. 
Even  in  David's  time    it   seems   to   have   been   the    chief  of  the 
Phoenician   cities.     Its   king   Hiram    sent  workmen  and  timber  to 
Solomon  for  the  building  of  the  Temple,  and  entered  into  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  him  for  the  purpose  of  sending  ships  to  Ophir 
(see  17,  D  p.  20).     King  Pygmalion  having  murdered  the  husband 
of  his  sister  Dido,  the  widow  fled  to  Africa ,  where  she  founded  the  city 
of  Carthage  (830  ?).     About  the  year  720,  Sidon,  old  Tyre,  and  other 
cities,  threw  off  their  allegiance   to  Tyre,  and   were  supported  by 
Salmanassar,  who  invested  the  city,  but  was  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege  at  the  end  of  five  years.     With  equal  success  Tyre  maintained 
its  independence  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  besieged  the  old  town 
thirteen  years  without  effect. 


104,  105.    §26.]       ASIA. THE    PH(ENICIANS.  63 

Under  the  Persian  dominion  the  Phoenician  cities  re-  104 
tained  their  own  kings,  and  were  merely  required  to  pay  A 
tribute  and  furnish  contingents  of  shipping.  The  kings  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon  are  mentioned  as  commanders-in-chief  of 
the  Persian  fleet  at  Salamis.  The  Phoenician  cities  sub- 
mitted without  resistance  to  Alexander  the  Great,  with  the 
exception  of  Tyre,  which  refused  to  receive  a  Macedonian 
garrison,  and  after  a  siege  of  seven  months  was  taken  and 
almost  entirely  demolished.  Although  it  was  afterwards 
rebuilt,  the  establishment  of  Alexandria  prevented  its  ever 
attaining  its  former  prosperity. 

§  26.  Religion,  fyc.  of  the  Phoenicians.* 

The  RELIGION  of  the  Phoenicians  is  a  subject  of  unusual  105 
importance,  as  relating  to  a  people  who  were  the  most  B 
polished    of    all   the   Semitic   tribes,    and  exercised   the 
greatest  and  most  lasting  influence  on  the  civilization  of 
the  ancient  world,  partly  by  means  of  their  commercial 
relations,  and  partly  through  the  extensive  migrations  of 
Phoenician  tribes.     Their  religion,  like  that  of  the  Shem- 
ites  in  general  (comp.  45,  p.  35),  was  that  of  nature,  ex- 
pressed in  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  their  gods 
being  mythical  personifications  of  her  powers  visibly  re- 
presented   by   the   planets.      The   Sun   (Baal),    as   the  c 
stronger  and  more  vigorous  light,  was  worshipped  as  the 
symbol  of  the  male  power  of  nature,  whilst  the  Moon 
(Astarte),  as  the  milder  and  feebler  luminary,  represented 
the  female.      The  various  effects  of  the  sun's  rays  were 
also  worshipped  as  divine  beings,  both  the  beneficial  (as 
Jao,  the  vivifying  power  of  nature),  and  the  injurious, 
(personified  in  Typhon,)  and  his  different  phases  at  the 
various  seasons  of  the  year,  and  different  parts  of  the  day, 
suggested  the  idea  of  separate  deities  (e.  g.  the  sun  in 
spring  was  worshipped  as  Adonis),  and,  lastly,  the  planets 
(Venus,  Mars,  and  Mercury),  as  deriving  light  and  power 
from  the  sun,  were  considered  emanations  of  his  godhead. 
They  believed,  moreover,  that  the  supreme  Being  acts  in  D 
the  world,  not  immediately,  but  by  the  intervention  of  a 
Mediator,  who  is  like  himself,  and  regarded  as  his  son, 
because  he  is  the  visible  manifestation  of  his  essence. 

1  '  The  Phcsnicians'  (die  Phonizier),  by  F.  C.  Movers,  1841,  vol.  i. 
3* 


64  ASIA. — THE    PHOENICIANS.       [106,  107.    §  26. 

A  This  manifestation  of  Baal  was  the  Tynan  Hercules,  who 
in  this  character  is  partly  a  conservative  principle  (Chon 
or  Saturn),  partly  a  destructive  one  (Moloch). 

106  2.  INVENTIONS. — Necessity  led  the  Phoenicians  to  in- 
vent ship-building,  the  alphabet,  arithmetic,  and,  perhaps, 
also  the  coinage  of  money ;    but  the  discovery  of  their 
purple  dye  and  the  manufacture  of  glass  seem  to  have 
been  the  result  of  accident. 

107  3.  COMMERCE. 

B  Maritime  trade.  To  this  they  were  driven  by  the  posi- 
tion of  their  country,  and  the  barrenness  of  its  soil,  as 
well  as  by  the  accumulation  of  articles  of  merchandise 
brought  by  caravans  from  the  interior  of  Asia.  The  chief 
goals  of  their  maritime  enterprise  were  their  own  colonies, 
especially  the  south  of  Spain,  from  which  they  imported 
gold,  silver,  lead,  and  iron,  wine,  oil,  wax,  wool,  fruits, 
and  salt  fish.  From  Spain  they  visited  the  "  tin  islands," 
(Cassiterides),  the  amber  coas^?),1  and  the  western  coast 

c  of  Africa ;  but  these  voyages  were  kept  secret.  From  the 
Persian  gulf  they  sailed  to  India,  and  from  the  Arabian, 
in  company  with  the  Israelites,  to  Ophir.  Necho,  king  of 
Egypt,  is  said  to  have  prevailed  on  them  to  circumnavi- 
gate Africa. 

There  was  never  any  very  considerable  commercial  intercourse 
between  the  Greeks  and  Phoenicians,  partly  on  account  of  their 
mutual  jealousy,  and  partly  because  the  Greeks  could  obtain  most 
articles  of  Phoenician  produce  in  their,  own  colonies  in  Asia  Minor ; 
partly  also  on  account  of  the  political  relations  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
Phoenicians,  as  subjects  of  the  king  of  Persia.  Frankincense,  spices, 
and  Tyrian  cloths,  seem  to  have  been  the  only  articles  imported  from 
Phoenicia  by  the  Greeks. 

j>  LAND-TRAFFIC. — aa.  Southward  to  Arabia,  from  which  the 
Nomadic  people  of  that  country,  the  Edomites  and  Moabites, 
brought  to  Phoenicia  the  productions  of  their  own  land  (frankincense, 
which  was  obtained,  not  in  Arabia,  but  from  the  opposite  peninsula 
of  Zuila,  gold,  and  precious  stones),  aa  well  as  those  of  India  and 
Ethiopia  (cinnamon,  ivory,  and  ebony),  and  to  Egypt,  whence  they 
themselves  imported  cotton  and  embroidered  stuffs  in  exchange  for 
wine. 

bb.  Westward  to  Palestine,  whence  they  imported  corn,  wine,  oil, 
and  balsam  ;  to  Syria  (wine  from  Chalybon,  and  wool),  and  to  Bnby- 

'  C.  0.  Mttller  (die  Etrusker,  287),  proves  that  it  does  not  follow 
from  the  early  acquaintance  of  the  Phoenicians  with  amber,  that  they 
visited  the  coasts  of  Prussia,  by  establishing  the  fact,  that  this  pro- 
duction was  conveyed  through  Germany,  and  thence  to  Greece,  by 
means  of  the  Etruscans  in  Upper  Italy. 


108 — 112.  §27.]         ASIA  MINOR.  65 

Ion,  on   the   great  commercial    road   across   the    Syrian  desert   by  A 
Palmyra. 

cc.  Northward  to  Armenia  (importations,  horses  and  mules),  and 
to  the  Caucasian  countries,  (importations,  slaves  and  copper).  The 
trade  of  Phoenicia  was  carried  on  principally  by  means  of  barter. 

4.  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES.  The  most  celebrated  were  108 
their  dyes.    The  Tyrian  purple(a  term  used  to  express 
not  a  single  color,  but  generally  those  produced  by  the 
liquor  of  the  sea-muscle,  especially  the  scarlet  and  violet), 
was  among  the  chief  articles  of  luxury  purchased  by  the 
great.   Stuff's  (Sidonian  garments  are  mentioned  by  Homer) 
in  Sidon  and  especially  in  Tyre.     Glass,  the  manufacture  B 
of  which  was  discovered  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  for  a  long 
time  confined  to  them.     Objects  of  luxury,  in  gold,  amber, 
and  ivory. 

VII.     THE  STATES  OF  ASIA  MINOR. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. — Our  notices  of  the  history  of  these  states  109 
are  meagre  and  scattered.  Most  of  them  are  found  in  Herodotus 
and  Strabo,  and  (for  the  history  of  Troas)  in  Homer  and  Virgil. 
Xanthus  ofSardes  wrote  a  history  of  Lydia,  in  four  books,  of 
which  only  a  fragment  is  extant.  Cramer,  Geog.  and  Hist,  descrip- 
tion of  Asia  Minor.  Grote,  chs.  16,  17. l 

§  27.    Geography  of  Asia  Minor. 

NAME. — The  peninsula  (formed  by  the  Black,  JiJgean,  110 
and  Mediterranean  seas),  which  we  name  Asia  Minor, 
had  no  general  appellation  among  either  the  Greeks  or 
Romans ;    the  term  "  Asia  Propria,"  as  well  as   that  of  ' 
"  Asia  Minor,"  which  is  first  found  in  Orosius  (in  the 
fifth  century),  being  employed  to  indicate  only  the  west- 
ern half, 

SOIL. — The  interior  of  the  peninsula  forms  a  westerly  111 
continuation  of  the  Armenian  highlands,  separated  from  c 
the  coast  on  the  north  by  the  Taurus,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  Anti-Taurus,  and  broken  towards  the  west  into  chains 
of  lower  mountains,  such  as  the  Tmolus,  Sipylus,  Ida, 
and  Olympus.     The  highest  peak  is  the  Argseus  on  the 
upper  Halys,  the  point  from  which  the  rivers  run  in  dif- 
ferent directions  into  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  seas 
and  the  Euphrates. 

RIVERS. — a.    Flowing  into  the   Pontus  Euxlnus — the  112 
Halys  (now  Kisil-Irmak) ;    b.  into  the  Propontis — the 
Gran ic us  (battle  in  334)  ;   c.  into  the  JEgean  sea — the 

1  Fellowe's  Lycia  and  Journals  of  excursions  in  Asia  Minor  will 
well  repay  a  careful  perusal. 


66  ASIA    MINOR.  [113—116.    §27. 

A  H  e  r  m  u  s  with  the  golden  P  a  c  1 6 1  u  s,  the  Maeander ;  d.  into 
Hie  Mediterranean — the  Eurymedon  (battle  in  469),  and 
the  Cydnus. 

113  DIVISIONS  AND  CITIES. 

A.  On  the  northern  coast. — 1.  PONTUS  with  Trapezus 
(now  Trebizond),  and  Amisus,  the  residence  of  Mithri- 
dates. 

2.  PAPHLAGONIA,   with  Sin6pe   on  the  Euxine  (the 
birthplace  of  the  Cynic  Diogenes). 

B  3.  BITHYNIA,  with  the  cities  ofChalcedonon  the  Bos- 
porus, opposite  Byzantium,  Nicomedia  on  the  Propontis 
(death  of  Hannibal),  Nicaea  in  the  interior  (first  council 
in  325). 

114  B.    On  the  western  coast. — 1.    MYSIA,  divided  into,  a. 
Lesser  Mysia,  the  northeastern  part,  wi.h  the  cities  of 
Cyzlcus,  on  the  isthmus  of  the  promontory  known  by  the 
same  name ;  Lampsacus  and  Abydus  (or  os)  on  the  Helles- 

c  pont  (battle  in  410).  b.  Greater  Mysia  comprehending — aa. 
Troas  or  the  Trojan  kingdom  (from  Abydus  to  the  pro- 
montory of  Lectum),  the  capital  of  which,  Ilium  (77  'rtiog 
and  10  "rtiov),  afterwards  called  Troja,  with  its  citadel 
Pergama,  stood  on  a  hill  between  the  rivers  Si  mo  is  and 
Scamander.  (In  the  place  of  the  Ilium  of  Homer,  which 
was  destroyed,  the  Mysians  and  Phrygians  founded  a 
second  Ilium,  and  after  the  death  of  Alexander  a  third 
city  of  the  same  name  was  built  nearer  the  coast.)  bb. 
The  district  of  DAKDANIA,  or  kingdom  of  ^Eneas,  situated 
north  of  Troas,  with  its  city,  Dardania  (to  be  distinguished 
from  the  ^Eolian  colony  of  Dardania,  where  Sulla  con- 

D  eluded  a  peace  with  Mithridates).  cc.  The  territory  of 
Pergamum,  at  a  later  period  the  capital  of  a  distinct  king- 
dom, dd.  The  twelve  ^Eolian  cities  (reduced  to  eleven 
after  the  secession  of  Smyrna).  See  §  57,  1. 

115  2.  LYDIA,  originally  Maeonia,  with  Sardes  (al  2uQdn?) 
on   the   PactOlus,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Lydia, 
afterwards  the  residence  of  the  Persian  satraps,  and  Mag- 
nesia on  the  Sipylus  (defeat  of  Antiochus  in  190),  with 
the  Ionian  towns.     See  §  57,  2. 

3.  CARIA,    with   several    promontories,  among    which 
M  y  c  a  1  e  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  in  479. 

116  C.  On  the  southern  coast. — 1.  LYCIA  (with  Patara  and 
Xanthus,  renowned  for  the  oracle  of  Apollo  Patareus). 


117—120.  §28.]         ASIA  MINOR.  67 

2.  PAMPHYLIA.  (116) 

3.  CILICIA,  divided  into  western  or  mountainous  (ryot-  A 
Xfia,  aspera),  and  eastern  or  champaign  (ntdui?.  campcstris) 
Cilicia.      In  the  latter  were  the  cities  of  Soli  (ol  ^So/lot), 
afterwards   Pompeiopolis  (Solcecismus),  Tarsus  on  the 
Cydnus  (birth-place  of  the  Apostle  Paul),  and  Issus  on 
the  Issic  gulf  (Alexander's  victory  in  333). 

D.  Mountain  districts  of  the  Taurus. — 1.  PISIDIA.  117 
2.  ISAURIA. 

E.  Elevated     country    of    the    interior. — 1.     PHRY-    118 
GIA,  at  various   times  a  district  of  considerable   extent,  B 
divided  into  the  Greater  Phrygia,  to  which  Lycaonia 

and  Gal atia originally  belonged,  and  Lesser  Phrygia 
or  Phrygia  on  the  Hellespont.  City,  Ipsus  (battle  in  301). 

2.  GALATIA  or  GALLOGR^CIA  formerly  a  part  of  Phrygia, 
occupied  since  the  third  century  by  the  Gauls,  and  divided 
into  twelve  tetrarchies.  City,  Go  rd  i  u  m  (the  Gordian  knot). 

3.  LYCAONIA,  with  the  city  of  Iconium. 

4.  CAPPADOCIA,  which  in  the  time  of  the  Persian  empire  c 
comprehended  also  Pontus,  was  divided  into  two  satrapies, 
the  Greater  Cappadocia  (which  afterwards  alone  retained 
the  name  of  Cappadocia),  and  Cappadocia  on  the  Pontus, 
which  at  a  later  period  was  known  simply  by  the  name  of 
Pontus. 

F.  The  islands.— See  §  52.  D.  ii.  c. 

§  28.  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lydia. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Lydia,  the  M&onians  (pro-  119 
bably  Pelasgians),  were  subdued  by  the  Lydiansy  a  Carian 
race,  who  invaded  the  country  at  a  later  period.  The 
history  of  the  Lydians  is  divided,  according  to  the  three 
consecutive  dynasties  of  the  ATYDJE,  HERACLIDJE  (1200 — 
700  ?)  and  MERMNAD^E  (700 — 546),  into  three  periods, 
the  two  first  of  which  are  entirely  fabulous.  The  fourth  D 
of  the  Mermnadse,  CRCESUS  (560 — 546),  subdued  the 
whole  of  Asia  from  the  ^Egean  sea  to  the  Halys  (with  the 
exception  of  Lycia  and  Cilicia  according  to  Herodotus), 
but  having  crossed  the  river  and  invaded  the  Persian 
dominions,  he  was  conquered  and  deprived  of  his  kingdom 
in  546.— See  §  55. 

Conversation  between  Croesus  and  Solon  the  Athenian,  120 
in  which  the  latter  pronounces  the  happiest  of  men  to  be 
one  Tellus,  an  Athenian,  on  account  of  his  son's  and  his 


68  AFRICA.  [121,  122.  §  28. 

120)  own  death  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  next  to  him  the 
A  brothers  Cleobis  and  Biton,  on  account  of  their  filial  affec- 
tion, and  the  love  borne  them  by  their  mother.  Croesus, 
before  his  invasion  of  Persia,  consults  the  oracle  at  Delphi, 
and  receiving  a  response  which  he  deems  favorable, 
crosses  the  Halys,  and  after  an  indecisive  battle  at  Pteria, 
returns  to  Sardes,  which  is  taken  after  a  siege  of  fourteen 
days,  and  destroyed  by  Cyrus,  who  had  previously  in  a 
second  engagement  obtained  a  victory  for  which  he  was 
B  chiefly  indebted  to  his  camels.  Croesus,  whose  life  had 
been  saved  first  through  his  dumb  son's  sudden  recovery 
of  speech,  and  afterwards  (when  placed  on  a  funeral  pile 
with  fourteen  Lydian  youths),  through  his  mention  of  the 
name  of  Solon,  sends  his  fetters  to  Delphi,  and  advises 
Cyrus  to  secure  the  subjection  of  the  Lydians,  by  com- 
pelling them  to  lead  a  life  of  enervating  luxury. 
121  Of  the  history  of  the  remaining  states,  we  possess  no- 
thing beyond  a  few  legends  and  detached  notices.  For 
the  war  of  the  Greeks  against  Troy  see  237.  4.  (p.  118). 


SECOND  DIVISION. 

AFRICA. 

PRELIMINARY    REMARKS. 

122  Africa,  of  which  only  the  northern  part  was  known  to  the 
c  ancients,  was  called  by  the  Greeks  simply  Libya  (stiftvr)). 
Of  all  the  quarters  of  the  globe  this  is  the  most  uniform, 
both  as  regards  its  line  of  coast,  which  is  scarcely  diver- 
sified at  all  by  gulfs,  isthmuses,  or  promontories,  and  its 
interior,  which  presents  merely  an  alternation  of  hill  and 
valley,  with  a  narrow  strip  of  sea-coast.  Its  insular  form 
separates  it  from  the  other  quarters  of  the  old  world  ; 
whilst  the  division  of  the  whole  region  by  the  equator  into 
two  portions,  differing  but  little  in  climate,  and  lying  nearly 
under  the  same  parallels  of  north  and  south  latitude,  pro- 
duces a  sameness  of  phenomena  in  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms.  Communication  with  other  parts  of  the 
world  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  want  of  harbors  and 
roadsteads,  and  by  the  small  number  and  insignificant  ex- 
tent of  its  rivers,  in  most  of  which  navigation  is  impeded 


123—125.  §29—81.]     AFRICA.  69 

by  cataracts.  Of  its  two  most  important  streams  the  one 
communicates  merely  with  an  inland  sea,  whilst  the  mouth  A 
of  the  other  has  only  been  discovered  within  a  few  years. 
At  the  same  time,  the  vast  extent  of  its  trackless  deserts, 
and  the  small  number  of  navigable  rivers,  present  almost 
insuperable  obstacles  to  communication  with  the  interior. 
In  consequence  of  these  disadvantages,  Africa,  with  the 
exception  of  Egypt,  has  made  very  little  progress  in  civili- 
zation, as  compared  with  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe. 

A.  Geographical  View  of  Africa. 
§  29.  Its  Boundaries. 

On  the  west  the  Atlantic  ocean,  or  outer  sea ;  on  the  123 
north  the  inner,  Libyan,  or  North  sea  (Mediterranean) ;  B 
on  the  east  Asia  (of  which  the  boundaries  on  that  side 
were  exceedingly  vague,  see  5),  the  Arabian  gulf,  and 
the  Erythraean  sea ;  and  on  the  south  (as  the  Greeks  sup- 
posed) the  ocean  which  united  the  Erythraean  sea  to  the 
Atlantic. 

§  30.   The  Soil  of  Africa. 

MOUNTAINS. — The  Atlas,  the  summit  of  which,  enve- 124 
loped  in  eternal  -clouds,  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  c 
the  supporter  or  pillar  of  heaven — the  Libyan  and  Arabian 
chains,  which  inclosed  the  valley  of  the  Nile — the  moun- 
tains of  the  Moon — Sandy  deserts — the  sea  of  sand  be- 
tween the  Libyan  mountains,  the  Mediterranean,  the  Atlas, 
the  Ocean,  and  Nigritia  (now  called  Sahara),  the  most 
extensive  desert  in  the  world.  In  its  eastern  portion, 
which  is  the  smaller  of  the  two,  there  are  a  few  scattered 
springs  of  water  and  oases  ;  but  the  western  division  con- 
sists entirely  of  a  mass  of  shifting  sand,  which  is  every 
year  extending  its  limits. 

§  31.   The  Waters  of  Africa. 

SEAS. — On  the  north  the  Mediterranean,  or  North  sea  125 
(a  part  of  which  was  called  the  Egyptian  sea)  ;  on  the  D 
east  the  South,  or  Red  sea,  with  the  Arabian  gulf;  on  the 
south  the  Ethiopian  sea ;  on  the  west  the  outer,  or  Atlantic 
ocean,  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits 
of  Hercules  (fretum  Herculeum  or  Gaditanum). 


70  AFRICA.       [126— 128.  §32,  33. 

(125)      LAKES. — Triton  is  and  Moeris. 

A  RIVERS. — Flowing  into  the  Mediterranean — the  Nile 
(see  133,  p.  73)  ;  into  the  interior  of  Africa — the  Niger, 
or  Nigris  (Niger,  Dscholiba  [or,  Joliba],  Quorra)  ;  the  em- 
bouchure of  which,  in  the  Bight  of  Benin,  was  discovered 
by  Richard  and  John  Lander  in  the  year  1830. 

§  32.  Division  of  Africa. 

126  The  CONTINENT  of  Libya  is  divided  by  Herodotus,  ac- 
B  cording  to  its  physical  character,  into  three  regions.  1. 
Habitable  Libya,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  (from 
Egypt  to  the  promontory  of  Soloeis),  inhabited  partly  by 
an  indigenous  race  (Libyans  and  Ethiopians),  partly  by 
Greek  and  Phoenician  settlers.  2.  The  Libya  of  wild 
beasts,  or  region  of  Mount  Atlas  ;  and,  3.  Desert  or  sandy 
Libya.  The  interior  of  Africa  he  designates  by  a  general 
name,  as  the  country  of  the  Ethiopians. 

THE  ISLANDS. — Insulae  Purpurariae  (the  northern  Canary 
islands);  Insulae  Fortunatae  (the  southern  Canary  islands); 
Hesperidum  Insulae  (Cape  de  Verd  islands?). 


B.  The   States   of  Africa. 

I.  THE  ETHIOPIANS. 

127  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. — Herodotus  (B.  III.),  Fragments  of 
c  Eratosthenes  B.C.  250),  and  Agatharchides  (about  120),  Diodorus 

(B.  III.),  and  Strabo.  Ethiopians — Modern  accounts  : — Heeren,  vol. 
4,  pp.  285  et  199.  Russell,  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  comprehending 
their  civil  history,  antiquities,  arts,  religion,  literature,  and  natural 
history.  Edin.  Cab.  Cyc.  For  travels,  v.  Bruce's  Abyssinia  Burck- 
hardt's  Nubia,  Hoskin's  Ethiopia. 

§  33.  Geography  of  Ethiopia. 

128  NAME  AND  EXTENT. — The  name  of  Ethiopians  (in  the 
D  Bible  Cushites)  was  originally  given  by  the  Greeks  to  all 

people  of  a  black  or  swarthy  complexion  (al'&w  and  wy>), 
but  afterwards  the  term  was  applied  exclusively  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  lying  southwards  of  Egypt  on 
the  Upper  Nile  (now  Habesch  and  Nubia). 

SOIL. — In  the  south  a  table-land,  traversed  in  all  direc- 
tions by  chains  of  mountains  ;  further  northwards,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  Nile's  course,  an  undulating  country, 


129,  130.  §  34.]  AFRICA.  71 

interspersed   with   rocks,    over   which    the    river   forms  (128) 
cataracts. 

RIVERS. — The  Astapus  and  Astabdrus,  the  union  of  A 
which  forms  the  Nile.  The  inundation,  which  renders  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  so  fertile,  is  occasioned  by  the  Astapus, 
but  repeated  attempts  to  discover  its  sources  have  been 
hitherto  unsuccessful.  Probably  (as  suggested  by  Ptolemy) 
it  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  The  Astabdras 
flows  out  of  a  lake  (Tzana)  in  Abyssinia. 

INHABITANTS. — The  Ethiopians  of  the  state  of  Me  roe  ; 
the  Troglodytes  and  Ichthyophagi,  both  on  the  shores 
of  the  Arabian  gulf;  the  M  a  c  r  o  b  i  i,  on  the  Indian  ocean  ( ? ), 
the  Egyptian  Warrior-caste,  which  emigrated  in  the  reign  of 
Psammetichus,  and,  settling  in  the  southern  part  of  Meroe, 
founded  a  city  dependent  on  that  kingdom. 


§  34.   The  Stale  of  Meroe. 

1.  GEOGRAPHY. — On  the  large  island,  or  rather  penin-  129 
sula  of  Meroe,  formed  by  the  Astapus  and  Astaborus,  B 
stood  the  city  of  Meroe,  the  exact  position  of  which  can- 
not now  be  ascertained.     Inhabitants. — Tribes  of  hunters, 
herdsmen,  and   agriculturists,    united    by  their   common 
worship  of  Ammon  and  commercial  relations. 

2.  HISTORY. — Meroe,  which   seems   to  have  been  the  130 
founder  of  the  most  ancient  Egyptian  states,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Thebes,  to  have  planted  the  little  colony  of 
Ammonium  in  the  Libyan  desert,  had  attained  considerable 
importance  as  early  as  the  year  B.  c.  1000,  through  the 
celebrity  of  the  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon  ;  and  its  situa- 
tion, as  a  central  point  for  the  caravan  trade,  which  was 
protected  by  the  priests,  and  carried  on  by  the  surrounding 
Nomadic  tribes.     Its  most  flourishing  period  was  between  c 
the  years  800  and  700,  when  Sabacus  subdued  Egypt. 
From  this  country  the  worship  of  Ammon  and  Osiris,  the 
colossal  style  of  architecture,  and  probably  the  hieroglyphic 
characters,  found  their  way  into  Egypt.     The  power  of 
the  priests  was  destroyed  in  the  third  century  before  Christ 

by  king  Ergamenes,  who  put  them  to  death  with  the  aid 
of  the  warrior-caste,  and  changed  the  theocracy  into  a 
monarchy.  As  early  as  Nero's  time  the  kingdom  had 
ceased  to  exist,  and  the  country  was  a  desert. 


72  AFRICA. THE   EGYPTIANS.       [131,  132.    §  34. 

131  3.  RELIGION,  &c. 

A  a.  Religion. — They  worshipped  the  sun  as  the  god  Amun, 
or  Jupiter  Ammon,  in  connection  with  his  oracle.  The 
great  similarity  between  the  Ethiopian  and  Egyptian  sys- 
tems of  worship  is  testified  by  their  architecture.  Both 
seem  (like  the  religion  of  Brahma)  to  have  been  founded 
on  astrology. 

b.  Constitution. — The  sovereignty  of  a  priestly  caste,  who 
chose  a  king  from  their  own  body.  The  power  of  this 
monarch  was  restricted  within  very  narrow  limits  by,  a 
variety  of  sacred  laws  and  a  rigid  priestly  ceremonial. 

B  c.  Art. — In  Ethiopia,  as  well  as  in  Nubia,  we  find  nume- 
rous ruins  of  magnificent  temples,  decorated  with  sculpture 
and  inscriptions ;  the  most  ancient  of  which  are  either  en- 
tirely (like  those  of  India)  or  partially  hewn  out  of  the 
solid  rock;  whilst  the  more  recent,  the  Nubian  for  in- 
stance, are  distinct  monumental  buildings,  often  with  alleys 
of  sphinxes  and  colossal  statues.  The  relievos  on  the 
walls  represent  historical  scenes,  partly  of  a  religious  cha- 
racter (such  as  solemn  supplications,  with  offerings  and 
distributions  of  alms),  partly  political  and  warlike  ;  the 
former,  as  the  more  important,  being  placed  in  the  sanc- 
tuary, the  latter  on  the  outside.  There  is  a  remarkable 
similarity  between  Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  works  of  art. 

c  d.  TRADE. — Meroe  was  the  centre  of  the  great  traffic 
between  India,  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  Libya,  and 
Carthage. 

This  traffic  was  carried  on  by  Arabians  from  India  by  sea  to  Ara- 
bia Felix,  or  Yemen,  across  the  Arabian  gulf  to  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa ;  and  thence  by  caravans  of  the  Nomadic  tribes  on  that  side 
(Troglodytae  and  Icthyophagi),1  through  Meroe,  which  was  also  the 
emporium  for  the  products  of  central  Africa.  Thence  the  merchants 
conveyed  their  goods  through  Thebes  down  the  Nile  into  Egypt,  and 
by  caravans,  which  touched  at  Ammonium,  and  thence  continued 
their  progress  through  the  country  of  the  Garamantes,  by  the  greater 
Leptis,  to  Carthage :  thus  visiting  the  three  principal  establishments 
of  the  priestly  caste  (Meroe,  Thebes,  and  Ammonium) ;  to  which 
they  were  attracted  partly  by  the  prospect  of  greater  security,  and 
partly  by  the  concourse  of  persons  who  flocked  to  the  national 
sanctuaries. 

II.  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

132  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. — Mangtho,  high  priest  of  Heliopolis, 
compiled  (about  the  year  B.  c.  260),  by  command  of  King  Ptolemy  II., 
a  work,  entitled    A«yu7rria«d  (in   three  books),  from   copies  of  the 

1  Tribes  mentioned  by  the  ancients  as  living  in  caves,  but  of  whom 
we  know  little  or  nothing. 


133,  134.  §  35.]  AFRICA.  73 

hieroglyphical  inscriptions  preserved  in  the  temples.      Fragments  of  (132) 
his  work  are  found  in  Josephus,  Eusebius,  and  iSyncellus.  A 

Hebrew. — Principally  the  books  of  Moses. 

Greek. — Herodotus,  in  Book  II.1  His  information  was  derived 
from  the  priests  at  Memphis  ;  whose  accounts,  collected  from  pic- 
torial records,  admitting  a  variety  of  interpretation,  and  from  the 
ill-understood  hieroglyphical  inscriptions  on  the  public  monuments, 
were  of  necessity  imperfect  and  unsatisfactory.  Diodorus,  in  B.  i., 
partly  from  the  older  Greek  writers,  partly  from  oral  and  written 
communications  made  to  him  by  the  priests  at  Thebes. — STRABO. 
Heeren's  5th  volume  is  devoted  to  Egypt.  Grote  has  a  valuable 
chapter,  20 — Eliot,  ch.  3.  For  a  full  view,  v.  Wilkinson's  Manners 
and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  The  great  work  (when 
completed)  will  be  Bunsen's  "  Egypt's  Place  in  the  World's  History." 
Hawks's  "  Egypt"  contains  an  interesting  v.;ew  of  the  connection  of 
Egyptian  and  Biblical  history. 

§  35.  Geography  of  Egypt. 

NAME  AND  BOUNDARIES. — Egypt,  in  the  Bible  Mizraim,  133 
and  thence  still  called  Mesr  by  the  Arabians,  described  by  B 
the  ancient  geographers  as  belonging  either,  partially  or 
entirely  to  Asia,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  east  by  Arabia  and  the  Arabian  gulf,  on  the 
south  by  Ethiopia  (so  that  the  islands  of  the  Nile,  Ele- 
phantine, and  perhaps  Philae,  belonged  to  Egypt),  and  on 
the  west  (without  any  definite  frontier)  by  Libya.  In 
ancient  times,  however,  the  name  of  Egypt  was  generally 
understood  as  belonging  only  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ; 
nor  was  it  until  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  that  its  bounda- 
ries were  extended  eastward  and  westward. 

SOIL  AND  CLIMATE. — The  valley  of  the  Nile  is  inclosed  134 
by  the  Libyan  and  Arabian  mountain  chains  ;  both  of  c 
which  are  pierced  with  a  number  of  valleys  crossing  them 
obliquely,  and  leading  on  the  one  side  to  the  Red  sea,  and 
on  the  other  to  the  greater  and  smaller  oases  of  the  Libyan 
desert.  The  western  chain  forms  a  monotonous  barren 
dam,  by  which  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  protected  from  the 
sand-waves  of  the  Libyan  desert ;  the  eastern,  which  fills 
the  whole  country  as  far  as  the  Red  sea,  has  in  Upper  Egypt 
three  distinct  formations — viz.,  in  the  south  (from  Phil  SB 
to  Elephantine)  rose-colored  granite  (the  material  of 
which  the  obelisks,  entire  temples,  and  colossal  statues, 
were  formed),  in  the  centre  (from  Syene  to  Esne)  sand- 

1  v.  Kenrick's  valuable  edition  of  this  book. 


74  AFRICA.  [135.  §35. 

(134)  stone  of  various  colors  (material  of  the  temples),  gradually 

A  merging  in  the  limestone  formation  of  the  mountains  in  the 
north,  or  in  Lower  and  Middle  Egypt  (material  of  the 
pyramids).  Of  this  region  the  only  fertile  portion  is  the 
valley  (from  two  to  three  miles  in  breadth),  which  is  in- 
closed between  these  chains,  and  watered  by  the  Nile. 
This  valley  becomes  wider  as  it  approaches  the  north,  and, 
with  the  Delta  (excepting  the  sandy  and  marshy  ground 
on  the  coast),  forms  a  tract  of  rich  alluvial  soil,  which  is 
manured  every  year  by  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile.  Rain 
is  known  only  in  the  Delta.  The  Chamsin.  Ophthalmia 
—plague. 
135  WATERS. 

B  Seas. — The  North  sea  (also  the  Egyptian  sea) ;  the 
Arabian  gulf  (in  the  Bible  the  sea  of  weeds),  the  north- 
western part  of  which,  at  a  later  period,  was  called  the 
gulf  of  Heroopolis. 

Lakes. — 1.  The  lake  Mceris  (formerly  forty,  now  only 
twenty-five  leagues  in  circumference,  and  extending  even 
within  the  last  200  years  two  leagues  further  southwards 
than  at  present),  was  fed  by  a  canal  from  the  Nile ;  to 
which  alone  the  remark  of  Herodotus  applies,  that  the 
lake  Moeris  was  excavated  by  human  hands.  In  the 
middle  are  two  pyramids.  2.  The  lake  Mareotis,  con- 
nected with  the  Nile  and  the  Mediterranean. 

c  Rivers. — The  Nile  (6  JVtUo?),  called  by  Homer  A\'y\m- 
TO?  (in  the  Bible  Jeor,  Nahal  Mizraim,  and  Sihor),  is 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Astapus  and  Astaboras 
(see  §  33);  and,  after  descending  in  two  cataracts1  (a  greater 
in  Ethiopia  and  a  lesser  on  the  confines  of  Egypt),  passes 
Syene  in  Egypt,  and  twenty  miles  above  its  mouth  divides 
itself  into  two  principal  channels,  which  inclose  the  Delta 
(probably  in  ancient  times  a  gulf),  and  flow  into  the  Me- 
diterranean. In  the  time  of  Herodotus  the  Nile  had  seven 
mouths  ;  of  which  the  easternmost  was  at  Pelusium,  and 

D  the  most  western  at  Canopus.  Of  these  only  two — at 
Damietta  and  Rosetta — are  now  navigable.  The  constant 
rains  which  prevail  in  Upper  Ethiopia  during  the  wet  sea- 
son (from  May  to  September)  cause  the  Nile  to  rise  an- 
nually (from  June1  to  September),  and,  when  the  water  is 
at  its  full  height,  to  inundate  the  whole  of  the  valley.  In 

1  From  end  of  June  to  end  of  September  at  the  rate  of  about  four 
inches  a  day,  and  falls  at  the  same  rate. 


136—138.  §35.]  AFRICA.  75 

order  to  distribute  this  body  of  water  (on  which  the  fer- 
tility  of  the  land  entirely  depends)  equally  over  the  A 
country,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  facilitate  inland  com- 
munication, artificial  lakes  (Mceris)  and  canals  were  formed, 
the  latter  being  furnished  with  sluices  arid  hydraulic  ma- 
chines. The  most  extended  of  these  canals  (that  of  Joseph) 
was  forty  miles  in  length,  and  ran  parallel  to  the  Nile. 
Most  of  them  were  in  the  Delta.  Two  ancient  canals  com- 
municate with  the  Red  sea. 

Natural  Productions. — The  crocodile,  esteemed  sacred,  136 
and  after  death  embalmed  and  inclosed  in  a  coffin  by  some  B 
Egyptian  tribes,  and  eaten  by  others — the  hippopotamus, 
or  river  horse — the  ichneumon — the  ibis,  which  devours 
winged  serpents — the  trochilus.  Corn  (even  in  the  days 
of  Abraham  and  Joseph,  Egypt  was  a  place  of  refuge  foi 
the  neighboring  nations  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  and  sub- 
sequently became  the  granary  of  Rome  and  Constantinople) 
— cotton — the  papyrus  shrub — the  lotus  (from  which  they 
made  bread).  There  is  a  deficiency  of  wood  and  metals, 
but  an  abundance  of  stone. 

Division  into — 1.  Upper  Egypt,  or  Thebais  (from  c 
Syene  to  Chemmis ;  2.  Central  Egypt,  or  Hepta- 
nomis  (as  far  as  the  division  of  the  Nile);  3.  Lower 
Egypt,  or  the  Delta,  and  the  lands  on  each  side  of  it  be- 
longing to  Egypt.  Each  of  these  districts  was  subdivided 
into  a  number  of  Nomes  (see  §  37). 

CITIES. — All  standing  on  elevated  ground.     Herodotus,  137 
ii.  177,  calculates  their  number  in  the  time  of  Amasis  at 
20,000. 

A.  In  Upper  Egypt. — 1.  PHILJE,  on  a  little  island  above  138 
the  smaller  cataract,  visited  by  pilgrims  on  account  of  the  D 
grave  of  Osiris  (only  2700  feet  in  circumference),  the 
richest  and  best  preserved  group  of  ruins  in  all  Egypt, 
principally  remains  of  temples.  2.  ELEPHANTINE,  also  on 
an  island,  with  some  architectural  remains,  demolished  in 
1818.  3.  SYENE,  on  the  Nile  (now  Assuan),  opposite 
Elephantine,  the  frontier  town  on  the  side  of  Ethiopia ; 
where  Juvenal  died  in  exile.  4.  THEBES,  or  Diospolis, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  capital  of  the  Thebais,  and  the 
most  ancient  residence  of  the  Egyptian  kings.  This  city, 
called  by  Homer  the  hundred-gated  (exarouTivloi,  II.  ix. 
383),  was  richer  than  any  other  city  of  the  earth  in 


76  AFRICA.  [139.  §35. 

V138)  architectural   specimens,  the   ruins  of  which  now  fill  the 
A  whole  of  a  valley  two  miles  in  breadth. 

The  most  remarkable  monuments  of  antiquity  in  Thebes  are — 
a.  ABOVE  GROUND,  aa.  On  the  western  side,  the  race-course, used  for 
foot-,  horse-,  and  chariot-races — innumerable  ruins  of  ancient  tem- 
ples and  palaces  in  Medinet-Abou — a  crowd  of  colossal  fragments — 
two  colossal  figures  of  Memnon,  represented  in  a  sitting  pos- 
ture, one  of  which  is  reported  to  have  sent  forth  a  musical  sound  at 
sunrise — gigantic  remains  of  the  sepulchre  of  Osymandias, 
with  an  enormous  granite  rock,  which  looks  at  a  distance  like  a 
B  statue  of  Osymandias.  bb.  On  the  eastern  side  :  the  two  Obelisks, 
in  front  of  the  temple  of  Luxor,  one  of  which  has  been  set  up  at 
Paris  (since  1834) — the  torsos  of  lions,  with  rams'  heads,  being  the 
remains  of  an  avenue  of  600  colossal  sphinxes  in  the  village 
of  Karnak — and  the  temple  of  Karnak,  with  a  mass  of  dilapidated 
walls,  broken  columns,  mutilated  colossal  statues,  and  overthrown 
obelisks  j1  and  between  them  enormous  halls  (one  of  them  according 
to  Wilkinson,  170  feet  by  329),  the  roof- plates  of  which  are  supported 
by  a  forest  of  columns.  In  the  largest  building  there  are  134  of  these 
pillars,  12  of  which  are  66  feet  high  and  12  feet  in  diameter:  in 
front  of  them  are  the  loftiest  gates  and  porticos  in  the  world. 
The  whole  is  covered  with  sculpture,  and  the  interior  decorated 
with  paintings  in  fresco,  the  colors  of  which  are  still  exceedingly 
brilliant. 

C  b.  UNDERGROUND. — Opposite  Thebes  the  Libyan  range  of  moun- 
tains, to  the  extent  of  two  leagues,  and  to  the  height  of  300  feet,  is 
pierced  with  innumerable  Catacombs,  which,  in  number,  dimen- 
sions, and  beauty,  excel  all  the  grottos  of  a  similar  description  in 
Egypt,  India,  and  Italy.  In  ancient  times  they  served  as  places  of 
burial  for  the  'dead  ;  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  middle  ages 
were  occupied  by  the  anchorites  of  the  Thebais.  They  are  now  in- 
habited by  Troglodyte.  (See  §  37—4,  c.) 

A  separate  cleft  of  this  Libyan  chain  contains  the  sepulchres 
of  the  kings  of  the  Thebais,  sunk  into  the  rock  (one  of  them  is 
341  feet  deep),  with  long  galleries,  which  gradually  descend  to  a 
greater  depth),  interrupted  by  innumerable  halls,  corridors,  and 
chambers,  in  which  stood  the  sarcophagi  which  contained  the  mum- 
mies ;  the  whole  decorated  with  the  most  exquisite  sculpture  and 

D  painting.  In  one  of  them  there  was  found  a  sarcophagus  of  the 
most  beautiful  alabaster,  only  two  inches  thick,  and  consequently 
transparent.  It  was  covered  within  and  without  with  2000  hiero- 
glyphic figures,  varying  in  height  from  one  to  six  inches,  with  others 
of  the  natural  size.  In  the  catacombs,  near  the  uncoffined  mum- 
mies, rolls  of  papyrus  have  been  found,  covered  with  hieroglyphics 
and  Egyptian  characters. 

139      B.    In  central  Egypt  the  monuments  of  antiquity  were 
destroyed  at  a  much  earlier  period,  and  more  completely, 

1  Here  once  stood  the  largest  monolith  in  the  world,  ninety-one 
feet  in  length. 


140—142.  §36.]  AFRICA.  77 

than  in  Upper  Egypt.      The  catacombs,  however,  still  (139) 
point  out  where  the  demolished  cities  once  stood.      The  A 
most  important  of  these  was  Memphis,  on  the   western 
side  of  the  Nile,  near  to  which  stood  the  pyramids.     See 
§  37—4,  e. 

C.  In  Lower  Egypt— a.  In  the  Delta.     1.  Naucratis,  140 
where  the  Greek  merchants  established  themselves,  by 
permission  of  Amasis.      2.  Sais,  from  the  time  of  Psam- 
metichus,  the  royal  residence.     3.  Buslris,  with  the  chief 
temple  of  Isis.      b.    Westward  of  the  Delta — Can  op  us, 
called  by  Herodotus  Canobas  (now  Aboukir),  on  the  west- 
ern bank  of  the  Nile  at  its  mouth,  and  at  a  laier  period 
Alexandria,  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  with  its  four 
ports  ;  before  the  largest  of  which  lay  the  island  Pharos, 
with  its  famous  lighthouse,     c.  Eastward  of  the  Delta —  B 

1.  On  (HJiiovTioh?),  with  the  celebrated  temple  of  the 
sun.  2.  P el  usium  (perhaps  the  Avaris  of  the  Hyksos), 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Nile,  near  its  mouth,  surrounded 
by  swamps  (hence  Pel  usium  from  nr^vg))  and  considered 
the  key  of  Egypt  on  the  side  of  Asia.  It  was  besieged 
without  success  by  Sennacherib.  Defeat  of  Psammenitus, 
and  subsequently  of  Nectanebus. 

D.  On  the  shores  of  the  Arabian  gulf  arose,  at  a  later  141 
period,  the  cities  of  Heroopolis  (on  the  canal  of  Ptolemy), 
Arsinoe,  Myoshormos,  and  Berenice; 

§  36.  HISTORY  OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

1.  Fabulous  period  to  the  reign  of  Sesostris,  or 

(about  1500  years  B.  c.) 

The  most  ancient  states  (Nomes)  of  Egypt,  that  is  to  142 
say  those  of  Upper  Egypt,  were  settlements  founded  by  c 
the  priestly  caste  of  Meroe  (comp.  §  34),  whose  rallying 
point  was  the  temple  with  its  privileged  priesthood.     The 
more  powerful  states  soon  began  to  exercise  authority  over 
the  weaker.     The  most  ancient  and  mightiest  was  Thebes. 
During  the  period  anterior  to  Sesostris,  the  throne,  accord- 
ing to  Manetho,  was  occupied  by  eighteen  dynasties. 

The  first  king  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  Menes,  to  whom 
the  building  of  Memphis  (a  Theban  colony)  is  ascribed.  According 
to  Herodotus  he  was  followed  by  330  sovereigns  (answering  to  the 
eighteen  dynasties  of  Manetho),  of  whom  the  priests  knew  only  the 
names,  no  memorials  of  their  deeds  being  extant.  Among  th« 


78  AFRICA.  [143,  144.  §  36. 

(142)  successors  of  Menes,  Diodorus  mentions  Buslris   as  the  builder  of 
A  Thebes  and  Osimandyas,  on  account  of  his   sumptuous  monument 
with  its  library.     As  early  as  the  year  2000,  Abraham  found  a  king- 
dom  established   in   Upper    Egypt.     The  Pharaoh   at  whose  court 
Joseph  lived,  resided  probably  at  Memphis. 

143  The  most  important  event  of  the  first  period  was  the  in- 
vasion  of  the  H  y  k  sos1  (name  of  their  leaders  ?),  a  Nomadic 
tribe  from  Arabia,  who  fortified  Avaris,  Avaqig :  (Pelusi- 
um  ?)  and  spread  themselves  over  lower  and  central  Egypt, 
ravaging  the  country,  and  destroying  every  vestige  of  civil- 
ization. This  accounts  for  the  blank  in  the  early  history  of 

B  Egypt.  These  invaders  destroyed  the  power  of  the  priest- 
hood, but  were  themselves,  after  a  lapse  of  many  centuries(?) 
expelled  by  the  Egyptians  under  the  command  of  Thut- 
mossis,  king  of  Thebes.  The  religion,  which  had  been 
suppressed  by  the  Hyksos,  was  then  re-established,  and 
the  great  temple  erected  (under  the  auspices  of  Amenophis 
II.,  called  by  the  Greeks  Memnon,  whose  statue  used  to 
send  forth  musical  sounds  at  sunrise). 

According  to  Herodotus,  the  last  of  these  kings  was  Moeris,  to 
whom  the  historian  ascribes  the  excavation  of  the  lake  Moeris  and 
the  building  of  its  two  pyramids.  Exodus  of  the  Israelites,  establish- 
ment of  colonies  by  Cecrops  in  Attica,  and  Danaus  in  Argos. 

2.  FROM  SESOSTRIS  TO  THE  AUTOCRACY  OF 
PSAMMETICHUS. 
(B.  c.  1500—656.) 

144  The  mighty  conquests  ascribed  by  tradition  (following, 
c  perhaps,  some  Egyptian  heroic  poem)  to  Sesostris  (on 

the  monuments,  Ramases :  in  Diodorus,  Sesoosis)  are 
limited  by  Herodotus  to  an  expedition  on  the  Arabian 
gulf  for  the  subjugation  of  the  nations  on  the  Erythraean 
sea,  and  a  campaign  (through  Syria  and  Asia  Minor, 
where  the  historian  himself  saw  memorials  of  his  exploits) 
against  the  Scythians  and  Thracians ;  but  with  the  increase 
of  geographical  knowledge,  the  range  of  his  reputation 
became  so  extended,  that  Diodorus  speaks  of  all  the 
nations  of  Asia,  to  the  very  shores  of  the  Pacific,  as  being 
his  tributaries.  Herodotus  also  mentions  him  as  the  only 
Egyptian  king,  who  ever  ruled  over  Ethiopia.  He 
divided  the  country  into  thirty-six  Nomes(comp.  §  37.  2), 

1  [Supposed  to  be  the  Israelites  by  Josephus  and  many  modern 
writer*.  See  Browne's  Ordo  Saclorum,  p.  578.] 


145   140.  §  36.]  AFRICA.  79 

each  under  a  governor  (Nomarch),  distributed  in  equal  (144) 
proportions  the  land  capable  of  cultivation,  allowed  A 
architects  from  the  conquered  nations  to  build  temples  to 
the  principal  divinities  in  all  the  cities  of  Egypt,  erected 
obelisks,  intersected  Lower  Egypt  with  canals,  and  built 
u  wall  1500  stadia  in  length  from  Pelusium  to  Heliopolis, 
to  protect  the  country  from  invasion  on  the  side  of  Syria 
and  Arabia.  Under  his  successors,  who  probably  resided 
at  Memphis,  the  territory  acquired  by  conquest  in  Asia 
and  Europe  was  soon  lost,  the  authority  of  the  later 
Pharaohs  extending  only  over  Nubia  (as  far  as  Meroe), 
and  over  Libya. 

RHAMPSINITUS  (about  1200),  story  of  the  robbery  of  his  treasury.      145 

CHEOPS  closed  the  temples  and  prohibited  the  offering  of  sacrifices,  B 
that  he  might  exact  the  full  amount  of  compulsory  labor  from  the 
people,  for  the  building  of  the  pyramids  (compare  §  37).     His  brother 
acted  in  a  similar  manner. 

CHEPHREN  continued  the  building  of  the  pyramids. 

MYCERINUS  reopened  the  temples  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
justice.  During  the  period  from  Mycerlnus  to  Sabaco  (about  300 
years),  only  two  kings  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus;  viz.  Asychis 
and  the  blind  Anysis,  who  was  driven  by  Sabaco  into  the  marshes. 
In  the  Bible,  mention  is  made  of  an  Eyptian  king  named  Sisak,  who, 
in  the  year  970,  made  war  on  Rehoboam,  and  stormed  and  plundered 
Jerusalem. 

About  760,  the  Ethiopians  under  Sabaco  invaded  143 
the  country,  and  governed  Upper  Egypt1  during  a  period  c 
of  fifty  years,  the  dynasties  of  Bubastis  and  Tanis  still 
maintaining  their  authority  in  Lower  Egypt.     Soon  after 
the  departure  of  the  Ethiopians,  the  reins  of  government 
were  seized  by  SETHOS  or  Sethon,  a  priest  of  Phtha  at 
Memphis.     The  warrior-caste  having  been  treated  with 
great   contempt   by  this   sovereign    and    robbed  of  their 
estates,  refused  to  meet  the  Assyrian  king  Sennacherib,  who 
had  advanced  as  far  as  Pelusium.     Noth withstanding  this 
backwardness  on  the  part  of  the  army,  the  invader  was 
compelled  to  raise  the  siege  (by  an  army  of  field-mice, 
according  to  the  legend).       After  Sethos,  the   sovereign  D 
authority  was  restored  to  the  warrior-caste,  and    Egypt 
divided  into  twelve  states,  the  DODECARCHY  (671 — 656), 

1  According  to  Manetho,  Egypt  was  governed  during  these  fifty 
years  by  three  Ethiopian  kings,  of  whom  the  Bible  recognizes  only 
the  two  last. 

5 


80  AFRICA.  [147,  148.  §36. 

(146)  which  were  destroyed  by  a  civil  war  after  continuing 
A  fifteen  years.  One  of  these  twelve  princes,  PSAMMETI- 
CHUS,  who  reigned  at  Sais,  and  opened  Lower  Egypt  to 
the  Greeks  and  Phoenicians,  was  banished  to  the  marshes 
by  the  other  eleven,  on  account  of  his  fulfilment  of  a  pro- 
phecy (by  pouring  a  libation  from  a  brazen  helmet) ;  but 
with  the  aid  of  Greek  and  Carian  mercenary  troops,  he 
succeeded  in  expelling  the  eleven  princes  and  re-establish- 
ing the  monarchy. 

3.  FROM  THE  REIGN  OF  PsAMMETICHUS  TO  THE 
PERSIAN  CONQUEST. 

(B.  c.  656— 617.) 

147  1.  PSAMMETICHUS     (656 — 617)     having   offended    the 
B  warrior-caste  by  granting  estates  to  his  mercenaries,  the 

greater  part  of  the  former  body  (240,000)  migrated  from 
Egypt  to  Ethiopia  (comp.  §  33).  From  this  period  the 
flower  of  the  Egyptian  army,  and  even  the  royal  body- 
guard, was  composed  of  Greek  mercenaries.  At  the  head 
of  these  troops  the  Egyptian  kings  made  several  attempts 
on  different  parts  of  Asia,  especially  Syria  and  Palestine. 
c  These  expeditions  were  commenced  by  Psammetichus,  but 
his  progress  was  stopped  by  the  obstinate  resistance  of  the 
Syrian  frontier  city  of  Azotus  (Ashdod),  which  was  taken 
after  a  blockade  of  twenty-nine  years,  and  by  the  advance 
of  the  Scythians  into  Syria.  Memphis  still  continued  to 
be  the  capital,  but  the  usual  residence  of  the  sovereign 
was  Sais.  Psammetichus  having  caused  Egyptian  youths 
to  be  instructed  in  the  Greek  language  by  Greeks  who 
had  settled  in  Europe,  from  them  sprang  the  caste  of  the 
interpreters.  His  son 

148  2.  NEKOS  (also  Necho,  617 — 601)  continued  the  favor 
D  shown  by  his  father  to  the  foreign  mercenaries,  at  whose 

suggestion  probably  he  began  a  canal  intended  to  unite  the 
Red  and  Mediterranean  seas,  by  communicating  with  the 
latter  by  the  Pelusian  branch  of  the  Nile  ;  but  this  project 
was  never  completed.  He  also  carried  out  the  plans  of 
conquest  set  on  foot  by  his  father,  stormed  Jerusalem,  and 
advanced  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  where  he  was  over, 
thrown  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  near  Circesium  (in  604),  and 
deprived  of  all  his  conquests  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  The 
circumnavigation  of  Africa  by  the  Phoenicians  (see  §  26). 


149—153.  §36.  AFRICA.  81 

3.  Of  his  son  PSAMMIS  (601 — 595),  Herodotus  records  149 
only  one  short  expedition  against  Ethiopia,  of  which  the  A 
issue,  as  it  was  related  to  him  by  the  priests,  was  unfavor- 
able.    His  son 

4.  APRIES  (in  the  Bible,  Hophra,  595 — 570)  revived  150 
Necho's  plans,  and  marching  with  a  land  force  against 
Sidon,  carried  that  city,  and  at  the  same  time  overthrew 
the  Tyrians  in  a  naval  engagement.     But  the  anti-national 
system  of  government  of  the  Asiatic  dynasties  was  cut 
short  in  consequence  of  an  accusation   brought   against 
Apries,  that    he    had    undertaken  an  expedition  against 
Gyrene,  for  the  purpose  of  wearing  out  the  remnant  of  the 
warrior-caste.     The  army,  after  sustaining  a  defeat  from  B 
the  Cyrenians,  rose  against  the  king,  and  called  to  the 
throne    Amasis,   who   had   been   sent   to  put  down   the 
insurrection.     Apries,  with  his  Greek  mercenaries,  was 
vanquished  near    Momemphis,  taken  prisoner,  and  sub- 
sequently strangled. 

5.  AMASIS  (570 — 526),  who  at  the  commencement  of  151 
his  reign  was  lightly  esteemed,  as  belonging  neither  to  the 
priestly  nor   warrior-caste,  endeavored   to  propitiate  the 
priesthood  by  building  and  embellishing  several  temples 
and  other  edifices,  and  established  his  authority  on  a  firm 
basis  by  the  conquest  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  as  well 

as  by  alliances  with  Gyrene,  Polycrates  the  tyrant  of 
Samos,  and  the  Greeks,  to  whom  he  granted  Naucratis  for 
a  settlement.  His  reign  was  the  most  flourishing  period  c 
of  Egyptian  history.  He  died  whilst  Cambyses,  whom 
he  had  insulted,  was  advancing  against  him  with  an  army 
(comp.  §  21).  His  son 

6.  PSAMMENITUS  (525)  was  vanquished  by  Cambyses,  152 
near  Pelusium,  Memphis  taken,  and  Egypt  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  Persian  province  (see  §  21). 

4.  EGYPT  UNDER  PERSIAN  RULE. 
(B.  c.  525—332.) 

The  insults  offered  by  Cambyses  to  the  priesthood  (still  153 
an  influential  caste)  and  to  the  Egyptian  religion,  had  D 
excited  a  spirit  of  national  hatred,  which  on  three  occa- 
sions led  the  Egyptians  to  throw  off*  their  allegiance  to 
Persia,  a  proceeding  which  was  rendered  comparatively 
easy  by  the  distance  of  the  seat  of  government  from  their 


82  AFRICA.  [154.  §37. 

(153)  country.  The  first  revolt  was  in  the  reign  of  Darius  I., 
A  and  suppressed  by  Xerxes  I.  The  second  under  Arta- 
xerxes  1.,  by  whom  they  were  compelled  to  return  to 
their  allegiance,  with  the  exception  of  Amyrtseus,  who 
maintained  himself  in  the  marshes  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile.  Third  revolt  under  Darius  Nothus.  Amyrtaeus 
assumed  the  sovereign  authority,  and  the  Egyptians 
remained  sixty-four  years  (414 — 350)  an  independent 
nation,  subject  to  their  own  kings,  in  spite  of  the  attempts 
of  Artaxerxes  II.  to  reduce  them.  This  object  was  at 
length  accomplished  by  Artaxerxes  III.,  the  last  Egyptian 
king,  Nectanebus,  being  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
Ethiopia.  Egypt  a  Macedonian  province  in  332. 

§  37.  Religion,  #c.  of  the  Egyptians. 

154  1.  RELIGION.' — Objects  of  worship  different  in  different 
B  Nomes.  1.  Beasts,  either  individual  animals  (e.  g.  Apis 
at  Memphis,  the  he-goat  at  Mendes,  &c.),  or  species,  such 
as  the  crocodile,  hawk,  cat,  dog,  ichneumon,  hippopotamus, 
serpent,  &c.,  which  in  one  Nome  were  accounted  sacred, 
and  the  killing  of  them  forbidden  on  pain  of  death,  whilst 
in  the  others  they  were  killed  and  eaten  by  the  people. 
Individual  animals  among  the  sacred  beasts  were  attended 
by  guardians  specially  appointed  to  that  duty,  and  after 
death  were  embalmed  and  placed  in  consecrated  coffins 
amidst  the  lamentations  of  their  worshippers.  2.  In- 
animate objects — the  Nile,  Osiris  (the  sun  ?)  and  Isis  (the 
c  moon  ?)  3.  Local  divinities — Ammon  (Zeus)  at  Thebes, 
Phtha  (Vulcan)  at  Memphis.  On  (the  sun)  at  Heliopolis, 
Neith  (the  goddess  of  fate)  at  Sais.  The  religion  of  the 
priests  was  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  people, 
embracing  more  exalted  conceptions  of  the  divinity,  and 
furnishing  other  views  of  the  life  after  death.  FEASTS, 
SACRIFICES,  and  RELIGIOUS  PRACTICES,  varied  according  to 
the  locality  and  the  deity  worshipped ;  but  the  belief  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul  seems  to  have  been  universal, 
its  existence  however  being  supposed  to  depend  on  the 
preservation  of  the  corpse,  the  soul  passing,  after  the 
decay  of  its  habitation,  into  the  body  of  some  beast. 
Without  embalming  and  the  performance  of  funeral  rites 

1  [Mr.  Brown  thinks,  that  the  hated  Typhon  is  "  the  mythological 
impersonation  of  Israel."     Ordo  S&clorum,  p.  606.] 


155,  156.  §  37.]  AFRICA.  83 

the  deceased  could  not  be  admitted  into  the  realms  of  the  (154) 
blessed.     His  right  to  these  honors  was  ascertained  by  A 
an  inquest  consisting  of   forty   members,  by  whom   his 
former   life  and  conversation  were  strictly  investigated. 
There  were  oracles  at  the  principal  temples  (of  Ammon  at 
Thebes,  Latona  at  Buto,  &c.). 

2.  CONSTITUTION. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  INTO  NONES. — The  number  155 
and  names  of  these  Nomes  are  variously  reported.  They 
seem  originally  to  have  been  independent  priestly  states, 
each  settlement  of  the  priestly  caste  forming  a  Nome  of 
its  own,  until  the  gradual  amalgamation  of  the  whole  into 
one  kingdom. 

DIVISION    OF    THE    PEOPLE    INTO    SEVEN    CASTES    (ysvSCt)  I  156 

a.  The  priestly  caste,  which  emigrated  from  Meroe,  and  B 
spread  over  the  whole  of  Egypt,  had  its  principal  stations 
at  the  chief  temples,  viz.  at  Thebes,  Memphis,  Heliopolis, 
and  Sais.  The  priesthood  and  high  priesthood  were  he- 
reditary, the  sons  being  compelled  to  remain  in  the  same 
temple,  and  attached  to  the  service  of  the  same  god  as 
their  fathers.  Scientific  knowledge  being  exclusively  in 
the  hands  of  the  priesthood,  all  judges,  physicians,  inter- 
preters of  signs,  and  officers  of  state,  were  taken  from  that 
body,  which  was  honored  as  the  ruling  caste.  Their 
revenue  consisted  of  the  income  derived  from  the  farming 
out  of  the  tax-free  estates  belonging  to  the  temples. 
They  were  rigid  monogamists,  and  observed  the  strictest 
cleanliness  in  their  persons  and  dress. 

b.  The  warrior-caste,  hereditary,  settled  generally  in  c 
Lower  Egypt  (on  account  of  the  frequent  wars  with  Asia), 
and  paid  by  grants  of  land.  No  cavalry,  only  war  chariots 
and  infantry.     The  emigration  in  the  reign  of  Psammeti- 
chus  did  not  extend  to  the  whole  caste. 

c.  Caste  of  the  herdsmen — not   Nomades,  but   tribes 
settled  in  the  mountains  and  swampy  lands  of  the  Delta, 
where  there  was  no  arable  land,  but  abundance  of  excel- 
lent pasture. 

d.  Caste  of  the   swineherds,  an    indigenous,  unclean,  D 
and   despised   tribe,    prohibited    from  mingling  with  the 
other  castes,  and  even  excluded  from  the  temples.     Indis- 
pensable, however,  on  account  of  the  use  made  of  swine  in    . 
sacrifices  and  for  treading  in  the  corn. 


84  AFRICA.  [157,  158.  §  37. 


(156)      e.    Caste  of  tradesmen  (xanyloi),    comprising   artists, 
A  merchants,  shopkeepers,  and  artificers.      Each  of  these 
employments  was  probably  hereditary. 

f.  Caste  of  boatmen  on  tlie  Nile,  of  especial  importance 
during  the  inundations. 

g.  The  caste  of  the  interpreters,  which  formed  the  me- 
dium of  communication  with  foreigners,  was  established 
by  Psammetichus  (see  147,  c.  p.  80). 

Diodorus,  who  comprehends  all  the  herdsmen  in  one  caste,  men- 
tions also  a  caste  of  agriculturists,  who  perhaps  were  the  farmers  of 
estates  belonging  to  the  kings,  priests,  and  warriors.  Whether  these 
formed  a  portion  of  the  "  tradesmen  caste  "  described  by  Herodotus, 
is  not  very  clear. 

157  The  kings  or  Pharaohs  were  probably  chosen  from  the 
B  warrior-caste  by  the  priests.      Their  power  was  circum- 

scribed by  the  influence  (arising  principally  from  their 
control  over  the  oracles)  of  the  priests  by  whom  they  were 
surrounded,  and  from  whom  they  were  obliged  to  choose 
all  the  officers  of  state.  They  resided  at  Thebes,  after- 
wards at  Memphis,  and  lastly  at  Sais.  Their  revenues 
were  derived  from  their  estates,  the  gold  mines  of  Nubia, 
the  fisheries,  and  the  tribute  paid  by  conquered  nations. 
The  kings  commanded  the  army  in  time  of  war  ;  but 
judicial  questions  were  investigated  by  courts  of  which 
the  members  were  all  priests  (the  supreme  court  of 
justice  consisted  of  thirty  members).  The  proceedings 
were  conducted  in  writing,  and  sentence  given  according 
to  written  laws. 

158  3.    SCIENCES,  which  were  exclusively  in  the  hands  of 
c  the  priests. 

a.  Astronomy,   applied  either  to  the  settlement  of  the 
seasons,  the  arrangement  of  the  calendar,  and  the   agri- 
cultural operations  dependent  on  it,  or  to  astrology,  which 
in  Egypt,  more  than  elsewhere,  exercised   an  influence 
over  the  public  and  private  life  of  the  people. 

b.  Geometry,  a  science  introduced  by  the  necessity  of 
re-measuring  the  fields  after  every  inundation  of  the  Nile. 
The  erection  of  their  magnificent  buildings  also  required 
mathematical  knowledge. 

c.  Medicine.     Each  part  of  the  body  and  every  disease 
had  its  own  physician,  who  could  not  depart  from  the  rules 
laid  down  in  the  six  books  of  medical  instructions. 


159—161.  §37.]  AFRICA.  85 

d.  Jurisprudence.    Legislation  being  connected  with  re-  (158) 
ligion,  their  priests  were  also  judges.  A 

e.  Historical  learning  consisted  in  an  acquaintance  with 
the  public  monuments  and  sacred  writings. 

4.  ART.  The  monuments  of  Egypt  exhibit  proofs  ofl<59 
great  mechanical  skill,  and  gigantic  solidity  of  construction ; 
but  the  dependence  of  art  on  religion  and  politics,  and  the 
rigid  prohibition  of  any  alteration  in  the  established  forms, 
although  no  impediment  to  the  production  of  grand  and 
magnificent  effects,  rendered  it  impossible  for  Egyptian 
artists  to  rise  to  the  repsesentation  of  the  beautiful. 

ARCHITECTURE  and  SCULPTURE  were  closely  connected  160 
among  the  Egyptians,  the  latter  being  employed  partly  in  B 
the  production  of  hieroglyphics,  partly  of  figures  repre- 
senting, with  the  aid  of  painting,  religious  ceremonies, 
the  affairs  of  private  life,  and  historical  events. 

THE  OBJECTS  OF  ART  were :  161 

a.  The  Temples,  the  walls,  pillars,  and  roofs  of  which 
were  covered  with  figures  representing  for  the  most  part 
objects  of  religious  worship,  and  with  hieroglyphical  in- 
scriptions. 

b.  The  Palaces,  with  representations  of  historical  events. 

c.  The  Catacombs  or  sepulchres  in  the  Libyan  moun-  c 
tains,  especially  near  Thebes,    with  a  great  number  of 
chambers,  side-closets,    halls,    staircases,    corridors,    and 
perpendicular   wells,    adorned    with    hieroglyphics    and 
painted    sculpture,  representing   every   possible  circum- 
stance and  employment  of  life. 

d.  The  Obelisks  were  pillars,  square  at  the  base,  and 
terminating  in  a  point.     They  were  generally  formed  out 
of  a  single  block  of  granite  from  50  to  180  feet  in  height, 
with  a  base  of  from  5  to  25  feet ;    hewn  and  polished  in 
the  mountains  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  transported  by  the 
Nile  and  its  canals  to  the  place  of  their  destination  (prin- 
cipally Thebes  and  Heliopolis),  where  they  were  set  up  at 
the  entrances  of  the  temples  and  palaces  and  covered  with 
hieroglyphical  inscriptions. 

Several  of  these  obelisks  were  brought  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  £> 
emperors  to  Rome  and  Constantinople,  where  they  were  erected,  but 
afterwards  thrown  down.  Sixtus  V.,  and  some  of  the  other  popes, 
caused  several  of  them  to  be  replaced  at  Rome.  The  Luxor  obelisk 
is  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  at  Paris.  Cleopatra's  needle  in  Water- 
loo Place,  London. 


86  AFRICA.  [162,  163.  §  37. 

(161)  e.  The  Pyramids  (also  Piramyds),  only  found  in  central 
A  Egypt,  are  quadrilateral  buildings  (the  horizontal  length 
of  the  sides  being  gradually  diminished  as  the  building  as- 
cends), often  ending  at  top  in  a  flat  superficies.  They  were 
built  of  various  heights  (the  largest,  that  of  Cheops,  origi- 
nally 480,  now  460  ft.  9  in.  high,  was  completed  in  thirty 
years  by  100,000  laborers  ;  a  canal  from  the  Nile  was 
brought  to  the  spot,  and  on  the  island  formed  by  its  waters 
was  the  burial  place  of  the  king),  of  limestone  cased  exter- 
nally with  granite  or  marble,  with  few  inscriptions.  On  the 
B  inside  were  chambers  and  passages.  There  are  still  about 
forty  pyramids  near  Memphis,  standing  in  five  groups,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  is  the  group  of  Ghizeh.  Their 
four  sides  are  turned  towards  the  four  cardinal  points  of 
the  compass.  Various  conjectures  have  been  hazarded  re- 
specting the  use  for  which  they  were  intended.  Probably 
they  were  either  themselves  sepulchres,  or  erected  over 
burial  places  to  mark  the  entrance. 

f.  Colossal  Sphinxes. — Couchant  lions,  with  human  heads, 
representing  (perhaps)  distinguished  men  and  sovereigns. 

c  Thus  the  double  rows  of  200,  and  even  600,  of  such 
sphinxes  at  Luxor  and  Carnac  might  represent  the  long 
line  of  Theban  kings. 

g.  The  Labyrinth,  erected  (according  to  Herodotus,  II. 
148)  by  the  Dodecarchs  (146,  D.),  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
lake  Mceris,  consisted  of  twelve  covered  courts,  with  1500 
chambers  above  ground  ;  and  the  same  number,  it  is  said,  of 
subterranean  rooms,  with  the  coffins  of  the  twelve  founders 
and  the  sacred  crocodiles.    The  ruins  which  have  been  dis- 
covered do  not  enable  us  to  trace  the  ground  plan  of  this 
extraordinary  work. 

162  THE  ART  OF  WRITING.' — Of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions 
D  only  a  few  detached  sentences  and  single  letters  have  been 

hitherto  deciphered. 

163  According  to  the  opinion  of  Champollion,  they  had  three  distinct 
modes  of  writing.     1.  The  hieroglyphic,  or  sacred  text,  which  was 

1  The  interpretation  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  is  the  great 
critical  discovery  of  our  age.  Champollion's  claims  are  allowed  to 
be  better  than  Young's.  The  great  work  is  Champ  Precis  du  Sys- 
tfcme  Hierog.  des  Anc.  Egypt.  Its  application  to  Scripture  history  is 
given  by  Greppo,  whose  es«ay  was  translated  by  Isaac  Stuart,  and 
commented  by  Prof.  S.  Lieber's  article  in  the  Am.  Enc.  contains 
an  admirable  general  view,  and  the  whole  subject  of  the  Egyptians 
is  thoroughly  discussed  in  Bunsen's  Egypt,  now  in  course  of  publi- 
cation. Good  summary  in  Hawks's  Egypt. 


164—166.  §37.]  AFRICA.  87 

employed  on  their  public  monuments,  and  comprehended  three  sorts  (163) 
of  characters,  viz. — a.  Figures,  representing  the  actual  object ;  b.  A 
Symbolic  signs,  indicating  abstract  conceptions,  through  the  medium 
of  analogous  natural  objects ;  c.  A  sort  of  alphabet,  consisting  of 
100  letters  (phonetic  hieroglyphics),  which  represented  different 
sounds  by  the  figures  of  those  objects  of  which  the  name  began  with 
the  sound  in  question  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  tongue,  which  is  inter- 
preted through  the  Coptic  ;  a  language  no  longer  spoken,  but  pre- 
served in  their  literature.  2.  The  Hieratic,  or  characters  employed 
by  the  priesthood  ;  an  abbreviation  of  the  hieroglyphic  form.  3.  The 
demotic,  or  popular  character,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  phonetic 
signs,  and  employed  in  the  common  intercourse  of  life. 

5.  The  want  of  timber  for  ship-building  compelled  the  164 
Egyptians  for  a  long  time  to  confine  themselves  to  inland  B 
and  river  traffic.     Its  position,  midway  between  Africa 
and  Asia,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  gold  of  Nubia  and  Abys- 
sinia, and  the  facilities  for  transport  afforded  by  the  Nile,   . 
the  only  navigable  stream  of  northern  Africa,  rendered 
Egypt,  especially  Upper  Egypt,  the  centre  of  an  extensive 
commerce  by  means  of  caravans.  (Compare  §  34.)  (Corn 
and  cloth  were  transported  into  Arabia  and  Syria  by  cara- 
vans of  the  Nomadic  tribes. )    The  commercial  relations  of 
Egypt  were  extended  by  Psammetichus,  who  opened  the 
ports  to  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks,  and  by  Amasis,  who 
permitted  the  Greeks  to  form  a  settlement  at  Naucratis  c 
(the  Hellenion).    The  increase  in  the  consumption  of  Egyp- 
tian produce,  consequent  on  these  arrangements,  gave  a 
fresh  stimulus  to  agricultual  and  manufacturing  industry. 

6.  Our  knowledge  of  Egyptian  HANDICRAFTS,  as  well  165 
as  the  employment  of  their  every  day  life,    is  obtained 
from  pictures,  especially  those  found  in  the  tombs.     They 
possessed  the  art  of  weaving  garments,  tapestry,  and  carpets ; 

of  dying  in  various  colors ;  of  producing  a  great  variety 
of  elegant  articles  in  metal,  and  of  manufacturing  earthen 
vessels  for  domestic '  use,  and  for  the  reception  of  the 
sacred  mummies. 

III.     THE  CARTHAGINIANS  (Carchedonii). 

SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION. — The   works   of  their  native  writers  IQQ 
(alluded  to  by  Sallust,  Bell.  Jug.  17)  are  all  lost ;  nor  is  any  mention  D 
made  of  Carthaginian  history  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  historians, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  coincides  with  that  of  their  respective  countries. 
We  possess,  it  is  true,  accurate  accounts  of  the  wars  of  Carthage 
with  Syracuse  and  Rome  in  the  works  of  Polybius,  Diodorus,  Livy, 
and  Appian ;  but  none  of  them  treat  the  history  of  that  country  as  a 
primary  subject.     The  only  notices  which  we  have    respecting  the 


88  AFRICA.          [167—169.    §  38>  39' 

early  history  of  Carthage  are  found  in  Justin  (from  Theopompus). 
The  constitution  is  also  described  by  Aristotle  in  his  Politics.  Hee- 
ren,  vol.  4.  Arnold's  Rome,  chs.  22,  39. 

§  38.   Geography  of  the  kingdom  of  Carthage. 

167  The  kingdom  of  Carthage,  at  its  most  flourishing  period, 
A  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the 

east  by  the  state  of  Gyrene  (the  boundary  stone  was  called 
arse  Philaenorum),  on  the  south  by  the  lake  Tritonis,  and 
on  the  west  by  Numidia ;  the  frontier  on  that  side  being 
very  vague  and  unsettled,  on  account  of  the  Nomadic 
tribes  by  whom  the  country  was  inhabited. 

168  DIVISION  AND  CITIES. 

B  a.  The  northern  part,  or  Zeugitana,  with  the  cities  of — 
1.  CARTHAGO,  on  a  peninsula,  in  the  bight  of  a  gulf  formed 

.  by  two  promontories  (the  Hermaean  and  that  of  Apollo), 
was  protected  by  the  citadel  of  Byrsa,  and  on  the  land 
side  by  a  triple  wall  (thirty  yards  high  and  thirty  feet  in 
breadth),  with  two  ports  ;  the  outer  for  trading  vessels, 
and  the  inner  (in  the  city  itself)  for  ships  of  war.  2.  Utica, 
a  more  ancient  city  than  Carthage,  and,  after  its  fall,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Africa  (Cato  Uticensis). 

c  b.  The  southern  part,  or  Byzacium  (from  the  people  of 
the  Byzantines) ;  of  which  the  fertile  region,  bordering  on 
the  lesser  Syrtes  and  the  lake  Tritonis,  is  sometimes 
further  distinguished  by  the  name  ofEmporia  (on  account  of 
the  number  of  commercial  towns).  Cities : — 1 .  A  d  r  u  m  e- 
tum;  2.  The  Lesser  Leptis;  3.  Thapsus  (Caesar's 
victory  over  Juba,  B.  c.  46). 

c.  The  eastern  part,  or  the  regio  Syrtica,  between  the 
two  Syrtes ;  a  flat  district,  inhabited  by  Nomadic  tribes,  with 
a  few  colonies,  such  as  the  greater  Leptis  and  others. 

§  39.  Foreign  Possessions  and  Settlements  of  the 
Carthaginians. 

169  A.  FOREIGN  PROVINCES,  governed  by  lieutenants  (orr^a- 

D  T1J/0/). 

1.  Sardinia,  the  most  ancient  foreign  possession  of  the 
Carthaginians.  This  province,  which  was  ceded  to  the 
Romans  at  the  end  of  the  first  Punic  war,  was  important, 
partly  on  account  of  its  natural  productions  (grain,  metals  ?); 
partly  as  the  key  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  emporium 
of  their  commerce  with  western  Europe.  Capital  city, 
Cal&ris  (Cagliari),  built  by  the  Carthaginians. 


170—172.  §40.]  AFRICA.  89 

2.  Corsica  (Cyrnos),  of  which  only  a  part  belonged  to  (169) 
Carthage;   ceded   to   the    Romans   at   the  same  time  as  A 
Sardinia. 

3.  Sicily;    never  entirely  in  their  occupation.     The 
Carthaginians  took  possession  of  the  settlements  founded 
by  the  Phoenicians  (see  §  24)  ;  and  through  the  attempts 
which  they  made  to  extend  their  conquests,  were  involved 
for  200  years  in  quarrels  with  the  Syracusans. 

4.  Tlie  smaller  western  islands  of  the  Mediterranean. — 
The  Balearic  isles  (inhabited  by  Troglodytes,  who  served 
in  war  asslingers),withEbusus(lvica),  and  Mel ite( Malta). 

5.  In  Spain,  the  Carthaginians  at  first  had  only  a  few  B 
detached  settlements  on  the  southern  and  western  coasts. 
It  was  not  until  after  the  loss  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia  that 
they  endeavored  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  whole 
country. 

B.  FOREIGN  SETTLEMENTS  on  the  northern  and  western 
coasts  of  Africa,  and  the  western  coast  of  Spain.  These, 
as  well  as  the  provinces,  were  kept  in  a  state  of  complete 
dependence  on  the  mother  country,  which  was  enabled  to 
retain  her  supremacy  by  her  position  almost  in  the  centre 
of  her  colonies,  and  her  large  military  and  naval  force. 
Establishment  of  the  worship  of  Melkarth  in  the  colonies. 

§  40.  HISTORY  OF  THE  CARTHAGINIANS. 

1.  From  the  Building  of  Carthage  to  the  Wars  with  the 

Greeks  in  Sicily. 

(B.  c.  880—480.) 

The  Phoenicians  having  already  founded  Utica,  and  per-  170 
haps  other  cities  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  partly  on  c 
account  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  partly  for  the  sake  of 
commerce  with  the  native  Nomadic  tribes,  and  intercourse 
by  sea  with  Spain,  the   establishment  of  Carthage  was 
effected  about  the  year  878  (?)  by  a  party  who  had  emi- 
grated from  Tyre  in  consequence  of  a  civil  war. 

Legend  of  its  establishment. — Dido,  a  Tyrian  princess  (according  to  J7j 
Virgil  and  some  historians  a  contemporary  of  JEneas),  fled  from  her 
brother  Pygmalion,  the  murderer  of  her  husband,  and  having  pur- 
chased as  much  land  in  the  district  of  Utica  as  she  could  cover  with 
an  ox's  hide  (QvpaaV)  cut  it  into  strips  sufficient  to  inclose  a  space 
of  half  a  mile  (?),  and  built  the  fortress  of  Byrsa,  which  was  gra- 
dually surrounded  by  a  city. 

This  state,  which  from  its  foundation  was  independent  172 


90  AFRICA.  [173—175.  §40. 

(172)  (except  in  religious  matters),  soon  extended  itself.  1.  By 
A  the  subjugation  of  the  neighboring  tribes,  who  were  kept 
in  a  state  of  dependence  by  the  establishment  of  Cartha- 
ginian colonists.  The  amalgamation  of  these  with  the 
natives  produced  the  nation  of  the  Libyo-Phcenicians. 
2.  By  foreign  conquests  and  settlements. — Voyages  of 
discovery  undertaken  by  Hanno  and  Himilko  beyond  the 
pillars  of  Hercules. — Abortive  attempt  of  Cambyses  against 
Carthage  (see  §  21). — First  commercial  treaty  with  Rome. 

2.    FROM   THE    BEGINNING  OF  THE  WARS  WITH  THE  GREEKS 

IN  SICILY  TO  THE  WARS  WITH  THE  ROMANS. 
(B.  c.  480— 264 )  * 

173  FIRST  WAR  IN  SICILY  (480). — The  first  step  towards 
B  the  downfall  of  the  Carthaginian  state,  which  had  risen  so 

rapidly  into  importance,  was  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of 
the  Carthaginians  entirely  to  subdue  Sicily,  where  they 
had  already  taken  possession  of  the  colonies  formerly 
established  by  the  Phoenicians.  Although  they  chose  for 
this  purpose  the  very  moment  when  Greece,  occupied  with 
the  Persian  war,  was  straining  every  nerve  to  preserve  her 
own  independence,  their  immense  army  (300,000  strong  ?) 
was  nevertheless  utterly  defeated  near  Himera  (480)  by 
Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  on  the  same  day  as  the  battle  of 
c  Salamis.  In  this  engagement  Hamilcar,  their  commander- 
in-chief,  was  slain,  and  their  fleet  burnt,  nor  were  terms  of 
peace  granted  to  them  until  they  had  consented  to  pay  a 
considerable  tribute. 

174  SECOND  WAR  IN  SICILY  (410 — 339). — After  an  inter- 
mission of  hostilities  for  seventy  years,  the  war  with  the 
Greeks  was  renewed,  in  consequence  of  the  assistance 
given  to  the  people  of  Egesta  against  Selinus  by  the  Car- 
thaginians, who  destroyed  Selinus,  Himera," Agrigentum, 
and  Gela,  and  concluded  a  peace  with  Syracuse,  by  which 

D  they  became  masters  of  the  western  part  of  Sicily.  The 
Syracusans,  however,  under  their  tyrant  Dionysius  I.,  and 
afterwards  under  the  Corinthian  Timoleon,  made  repeated 
attempts  to  expel  the  Carthaginians  from  Sicily  ;  and  suc- 
ceeded so  far  as  considerably  to  circumscribe  their  pos- 
sessions on  the  island. 

175  THIRD   WAR   IN    SICILY      (317— 375).— The     tyrant 
Agathdcles  had  hardly  ascended  the  throne  of  Syracuse, 
when  he  endeavored  to  subdue  the  rest  of  Sicily,  and,  in 


176.  §40.]  AFRICA.  91 

consequence  of  this  attempt,  became  involved  in  a  war  (175) 
with  the  Carthaginians,  who  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  A 
people  whom  he  had  expelled,  wrested  his  conquests  from 
Agathdcles,  and  laid  siege  to  Syracuse  itself.  The  tyrant 
then  effected  a  landing  in  Africa,  stormed  most  of  the 
Carthaginian  cities,  ravaged  their  territory,  and  even  threat- 
ened the  capital  itself,  which  at  that  time  was  in  a  state  of 
commotion  on  account  of  Bomilcar's  attempt  to  make  him- 
self absolute.  Meanwhile,  the  Syracusans  overthrew  and  B 
annihilated  the  besieging  army  of  the  Carthaginians.  No 
sooner,  however,  had  Agathdcles  quitted  Africa  for  the 
purpose  of  crushing  the  opposition  of  the  Sicilians,  than 
the  army  which  he  had  left  to  carry  on  the  siege  of  Car- 
thage  began  to  melt  away,  and  Agathocles  himself  was 
compelled  to  concede  to  the  Carthaginians  the  peaceable 
occupation  of  their  former  possessions  in  Sicily,  on  con- 
dition of  their  becoming  tributary  to  Syracuse.  After  the  c 
death  of  Agathocles  (280),  the  victorious  Carthaginians  ad- 
vanced to  the  walls  of  Syracuse,  which  was  weakened  by 
intestine  struggles ;  but  were  twice  beaten  back  as  far  as 
Lilybseum  by  Pyrrhus,  who  had  been  invited  over  from 
Italy,  and  was  already  on  the  eve  of  embarking  for  Africa, 
when  several  cities,  disgusted  at  his  extreme  severity, 
again  joined  the  Carthaginians,  and  overthrew  him  in  a 
naval  engagement  on  his  return  from  Sicily  in  the  year 
275. 

3.    FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  WARS  WITH  THE  ROMANS 
TO  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  CARTHAGE. 

(B.C.  264-146.) 

FIRST  WAR  WITH  ROME,  264—241.     See  §  119.  176 

WAR  WITH  THE  MERCENARIES  (240 — 237). — The  first  D 
war  with  Rome  not  only  ended  in  the  loss  of  Sicily,  but 
so  completely  exhausted  the  exchequer  of  the  Carthaginian 
government,  as  to  leave  no  funds  for  discharging  the  ar- 
rears of  pay  due  to  the  mercenary  soldiers.  A  mutiny  of 
these  hired  troops  being  immediately  succeeded  by  an 
insurrection  of  the  Carthaginian  provincial  towns,  which 
availed  themselves  of  this  opportunity  to  throw  off  the 
oppressive  and  often  bloody  yoke  of  the  Carthaginians, 
Hanno  was  appointed  commander-in-chief ;  but,  being  un- 
successful in  his  endeavors  to  crush  the  insurrection,  was 


92  AFRICA.  [177,  178.  §  40. 

(176)  superseded  by  Hamilcar  Barcas,  who,  by  great  exertions, 
A  brought  the  war  to  a  satisfactory  termination.  During  this 
war  the  Romans  deprived  the  Carthaginians  of  Sardinia, 
and  soon  afterwards  of  Corsica,  Proceedings  having  been 
commenced  by  his  enemies  against  Hamilcar,  on  the 
ground  of  his  having  occasioned  the  mercenaries'  war,  and 
the  consequent  loss  of  Sardinia,  by  promises  made  to  the 
soldiers  on  his  own  responsibility,  the  accused  appealed  to 
the  people,  and  having  succeeded  in  gaining  over  their 
leaders,  the  process  fell  to  the  ground.  Thus  there  arose  an 
aristocratical  party  under  Hanno,  and  a  democratical, 
headed  by  Hamilcar, — the  first  step  towards  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  constitution. 

177  In  order  to  indemnify  his  country  for  the  loss  of  her 
B  best  provinces,  Sicily  and  Sardinia  (the  guilt  of  which  was 

laid  to  his  charge),  and  for  the  purpose  of  recruiting  the 
finances,  Hamilcar,  without  consulting  either  the  people 
or  senate,  undertook  the  conquest  of  Spain.  Hamil- 
car was  succeeded  in  the  command  by  his  son-in-law 
Hasdrubal ;  and  during  the  nine  years  of  its  occupation 
by  the  former  general,  and  eight  by  the  latter,  the 
whole  of  southern  Spain  was  brought  into  subjection  to 
the  Carthaginians,  partly  by  negotiation  and  partly  by 
war;  until  a  period  was  put  to  their  conquests  in  that 
quarter  by  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty,  by  which  Hasdrubal 
pledged  himself  not  to  cross  the  Iberus,  and  to  respect  the 
c  Saguntines  as  allies  of  Rome.  Hasdrubal,  who,  besides 
other  cities,  had  founded  Carthago  Nova  (Carthagena), 
which  he  had  destined  to  be  the  seat  of  Carthaginian  go- 
vernment  in  Spain,  fell  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin  in  the  year 
221,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  command  by  Hannibal, 
the  son  of  Hamilcar,  then  in  his  twenty-sixth  year ;  whose 
appointment  was  sanctioned  both  by  the  senate  (where  the 
party  of  Barcas  was  predominant)  and  the  people.  The 
capture  of  Saguntum  by  Hannibal  occasioned  the 

178  SECOND  WAR  WITH  ROME,  218—201.  See  §  122.  The 
D  tyrannical  authority  of  the  100  (104  ?)  (an  order  of  judges, 

according  to  Livy)  was  restricted  by  the  new  dictator  to  one 
year,  and  several  improvements  were  adopted  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  finances.  He  also,  in  conjunction  with 
Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  formed  a  plan  for 
commencing  a  fresh  war  with  Rome;  but  his  project  bring 


179,  180.  §41.]  AFRICA.  93 

betrayed  by  his  opponents,  Hannibal  fled  for  safety  to  the  (178) 
court  of  Antiochus,  and  subsequently  to  Prusias  of  Bithy-  A 
nia,  where  he  withdrew  himself  from  the  persecutions  of 
the  Romans  by  taking  poison.      Masinissa,  king  of  Nu- 
midia,  and  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  deprived  the  Carthagi- 
nians (who  by  the  terms  of  the  last  peace  were  not  per- 
mitted to  undertake  any  war  without  the  consent  of  the 
Romans)  of  two  of  their  provinces  (Emporia  and  Tyska), 
and,  at  the  same  time,  secured  a  party  at  Carthage  by 
means  of  bribery.      This  party  being  expelled  from  the 
city,  a  war  broke  out,  and  Masinissa,  after  defeating  the 
Carthaginian  army,  shut  them  up  in  their  own  camp,  and 
compelled  them  to  surrender.     This  war  having  been  un-  B 
dertaken  without  the  permission  of  the  Romans,  afforded 
them  a  welcome  pretext  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities. 

THIRD  WAR  WITH  ROME  (150 — 146),   AND  RUIN  OF  179 
CARTHAGE. 

A  colony  of  Roman  settlers  having  been  established  in  Africa 
twenty-four  years  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  a  new  city  was 
founded  by  Augustus  (on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula), 
which  rose  into  considerable  importance  as  a  Roman  colony,  and  at 
a  later  period  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals. 
Afterwards  it  was  the  residence  of  a  Byzantine  governor,  and  in  the 
year  706  was  destroyed  by  the  Arabs.  Modern  Tunis  was  built 
from  its  ruins. 


§  41.  Religion,  fyc.  of  the  Carthaginians. 

1.    The  RELIGION  of  the  Carthaginians  was,  generally  180 
speaking,  the  same  as  that  of  their  mother  country,  Tyre  c 
— adoration  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  in  conjunction  with  a 
dark  and  blood-thirsty  superstition. 

The  chief  divinities  of  the  Carthaginians  (as  of  the  Phoenicians)  D 
were — 1.  Baal  (sometimes  a  general  term  for  God,  Lord,  &c.,  some- 
times signifying  the  sun),  who,  as  the  guardian  and  patron  of  the 
nation,  was  addressed  by  the  distinctive  title  of  (2)  Melkarth,  or 
Melkar.  His  peculiar  residence  being  supposed  to  be  at  Tyre, 
embassies  were  sent  yearly  to  that  city  with  offerings  of  tithes  and 
first-fruits  from  Carthage,  and  all  the  other  provinces.  3.  In  con- 
junction with  Baal,  they  worshipped  a  female  deity  named  Astarte 
[Ashtaroth],  probably  the  moon.  Both  of  these  divinities  were  bene- 
ficent, and  opposed  to  (4)  the  malignant  Moloch;  who  could  only  be 
propitiated  in  seasons  of  calamity  by  human  sacrifices,  especially  of 
children.  Another  beneficent  deity  was  (5)  Esmftn,  the  Asclepios 
or  jEsculapius  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  addition  to  these 
gods  of  the  mother  country,  the  Carthaginians,  at  a  later  period, 


94  AFRICA.  [181—183.  §41. 

(180)  adopted  in  some  instances  the  worship  .of  foreign  nations  ;  for  ex- 
A  ample,  that  of  the  Sicilian  goddesses,  Ceres  and  Proserpine.     The 
adoration   of  Dido,  and  of  the  brothers  Philaeni,  was    peculiar    to 
Carthage.     The  Carthaginians,  like  the  Phoenicians,  had  no  heredi- 
tary priesthood. 

181  2.  CONSTITUTION. — The  government  was  in  the  hands 
of  two  suffetes,  or  kings,  chosen  by  the  people  from  the 
principal  families,  and  holding  their  office  probably  for 
life,   and  of  the  senate,  which  was  composed  of   repre- 
sentatives from  all  the  guilds  of  the  citizens,  and  divided 
into  the  greater  (yegovaia)  and  lesser  council  (r\  ffvyxlrtjos), 
both  of  which  are  often  comprehended  under  the  common 

B  term  of  avvtdgiov.  In  this  assembly  the  kings  presided, 
and  proposed  the  questions  for  discussion.  ]n  the  event 
of  a  difference  of  opinion  between  the  kings  and  the 
senate,  the  decision  was  referred  to  an  assembly  of  the 
people.  As  a  general  rule,  the  kings  possessed  the  su- 
preme, civil,  but  not  the  military  authority.  Appre- 
hensions being  entertained  that  individual  families — the 
warlike  race  of  Mago,  for  instance — might  become  too 
powerful,  a  second  power  was  created,  by  the  selection 
from  the  council  of  a  body  termed  the  college  of  100,  who 
were  invested  with  the  right  of  calling  the  commanders 

c  and  other  public  officers  to  account.  They  were  also  re- 
quired to  take  measures  for  upholding  the  existing  con- 
stitution, and  probably  acted  as  judges  in  cases  of  high 
treason.  This  college  must  be  distinguished  from  the 
court  of  104,  appointed  for  the  decision  of  civil  causes. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  Carthaginian  dominions  were  mere 
vassals,  without  any  of  the  rights  of  citizens  in  the  capital. 
Their  magistrates  were  partly  chosen  by  themselves,  partly 
sent  from  Carthage.  The  colonies  of  Phoenician  origin, 
however,  seem  to  have  been  allies  rather  than  subjects  of 
Carthage. 

182  Sources  of  revenue. — 1.  The  tributes  of  the  African  and  foreign 
D  provinces,  partly  in  specie  (from  the  commercial  cities),  partly  in  pro- 
duce (from  the  low  countries) ;  2.  Duties  levied  in  the  ports  of  the 
capital  and  the  colonies ;  3.  The  profits  of  the  mines,  especially  in 
Spain  ;  4.  Piracy. 

183  Warlike  resources. — Their  naval  force,  before  their  wars  with  the 
Romans,  consisted  generally  of  150 — 200  triremes.     In  the  sea-fight 
with  Regulus  350  quinqueremes  were  engaged,  each  manned  with 
120  armed  marines  and  3000  slaves  to  work  the  oars.     2.  The  land 
force  consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  mercenary  troops,  composed  of 


194,  185.  §41.]  AFRICA.  95 

soldiers  from  different   countries  of  the  west.     The  Carthaginians  (183) 
themselves  formed  what  was  termed  the  sacred  band.     The  van  con-  . 
sisted  of  Balearic  slingers,  and  the  centre  of  the  African  vassals ;  the 
chief  strength   of  that  division  being   the  light  Numidian  cavalry. 
They  had  also  elephants. 

3.  In  Carthaginian  LITERATURE  we  hear  of  historical  works,  184 
and  a  long  treatise  on  agriculture  (in  twenty-eight  books),  by 
Mago,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  by  command  of  the 
Roman  senate.  Fragments  of  this  work  are  still  extant. 
The  Romans,  when  they  stormed  Carthage,  found  several 
libraries,  which  they  presented  to  the  Numidian  kings. 
Architecture,  mechanics,  hydraulics,  &c.,  attained  a  high 
state  of  perfection  at  Carthage. 

The  LANGUAGE  of  the    Carthaginians   (the  Punic,  of  B 
which  we  find  remains  in  the  Pcenulus  of  Plautus)  was  a 
dialect  of  the  Phoenician. 

4.  TRADE.  185 

a.  Commerce  by  sea. — The  Carthaginians,  in  their  anxiety 
to  monopolize  the  commerce  of  the  west,  opened  only  the 
ports  of  their  capital  to  the  vessels  of  foreign  nations,  ex- 
eluding  them  as  much  as  possible  from  those  of  their  co- 
lonies, in  order  to  avoid  a  competition  which  they  con- 
sidered prejudicial  to  their  interests.  The  intercourse  with 
foreign  countries  was  facilitated  by  friendly  connections 
between  individuals  belonging  to  different  countries,  and 
by  leagues  with  the  states  themselves.  Their  navigation  c 
extended  to  almost  all  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Me- 
diterranean, especially  on  the  western  side  ;  to  Sicily, 
southern  Italy,  Malta  (a  principal  emporium  of  Cartha- 
ginian manufactures,  chiefly  stuffs),  Corsica,  ^Ethalia  D 
or  Elba,  the  Balearic  islands  (Majorca  and  Minorca),  and 
especially  Spain  ;  probably  also  to  Gaul.  Beyond  the 
pillars  of  Hercules,  they  shared  with  the  Phoenicians  the 
trade  carried  on  between  Gades  and  the  tin1  and  amber 
islands ;  and  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa  their  traffic  not 

1  The  tin  islands  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  Britannia 
and  Hibernia.  Heeren,  however,  imagines  that  they  were  the  Sor- 
lingin  or  Scilly  islands,  on  the  western  coast  of  England  ;  and  Vogel 
(Encyclop.  von  Ersch.  und  Gruber)  states  their  existence  to  have 
been  simply  an  invention  of  the  Phoenicians,  devised  for  the  purpose 
of  satisfying  inquirers,  and  withdrawing  their  attention  from  the  real 
tin  counties,  Hispania  and  Britannia. 


96  EUROPE.  [186,  187.  §  41. 

A  only  extended  to  their  colonies,  but  was  carried  on  secretly 
on  the  rich  gold  coast  of  Guinea. 

186  CHIEF  ARTICLES  OF  COMMERCE. — a.  Exports — Black  slaves,  pre- 
cious stones,  gold,  manufactured  goods,  b.  Imports — Oil  and  wine 
from  India,  honey  and  wax  from  Corsica,  iron  from  Elba,  fruit  and 
mules  from  the  Balearic  islands,  metals  from  Spain. 

b.  INTERNAL  TRAFFIC,  by  means  of  caravans  of  the 
Nomadic  tribes,  between  the  two  Syrtes,  from  the  district 
of  Emporia,  eastwards,  to  Ammonium  and  Egypt  (com- 
pare §  34,  3,  d),  and  southwards  to  the  country  of  the 
Garamantes  (now  Fezzan)  ;  and  still  further  into  the  in- 
terior of  Africa ;  whence  they  brought  black  slaves,  salt 
from  the  salt  lakes,  pits,  and  mines  in  the  desert,  dates 
from  Biledulgerid,  gold,  and  precious  stones. 


THIRD  DIVISION. 
EUROPE. 

PRELIMINARY    REMARKS. 

187  Of  all  the  quarters  of  the  globe,  Europe,  although  the 
B  smallest,  is  unquestionably  the  most  powerful,  civilized, 
populous  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  and  remote  from 
extremes  of  every  description.  Its  position,  for  the  most 
part  in  the  temperate  zone,  renders  it  inferior  to  Asia  and 
America  as  regards  the  number,  variety,  and  beauty  of  its 
productions,  but  the  happy  union  of  a  continental  and 
maritime  climate,  and  the  consequent  facilities  afforded  to 
agriculture  in  almost  every  part,  dispose  the  inhabitants  to 
habits  of  regular  industry,  without  encouraging  them  to 
lead  what,  in  strictness  of  speech,  may  be  termed  a 
c  Nomadic  life.  Commercial  intercourse  is  also  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  extent  of  coast,  the  islands  lying 
within  an  easy  distance  of  the  continent,  the  numerous 
inland  seas,  and  the  equal  distribution  of  navigable  rivers. 
In  addition  to  these  advantages,  it  excels  all  the  other 
quarters  of  the  globe  in  the  productions  of  the  intellect ; 
for  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  if  the  seeds  of  political  know- 
ledge, the  sciences,  manufactures,  and  trade  were  to  a  great 
extent  first  sown  in  the  east,  they  attained  their  full  per- 


188—190.  §42—44.]     EUROPE.  97 

fection  on  European  soil,  at  first  in  the  south,  and  subse-  (187) 
quently  in  the  north.    Through  this  intellectual  excellence,  A 
added  to  their  immense  superiority  in  the  art  of  war,  the 
Europeans  have  been  enabled  not  merely  to  bid  defiance 
to  foreign  invaders,  but  to  extend  their  dominion,  and  the 
civilization  which  has  always  followed  in  its  train,  to  all 
the  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  by  means  of  their  dis- 
coveries, conquests,  colonies,  and  commerce. 

The  great  chain  of  the  Alps,  which  is  united  by  its  western  and  B 
eastern  branches  with  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Haemus,  divides  our 
quarter  of  the  world  into  two  unequal  parts,  each  distinguished  from 
the  other  by  the  difference  of  productions  indigenous  to  a  northern 
or  southern  climate,  as  well  as  by  a  variety  in  the  character  and  ap- 
pearance  of  the  inhabitants.  These  mountains  also  in  ancient  times 
formed  a  barrier  between  the  civilized  and  uncivilized  world.  There 
exists  ano>her  distinction  between  eastern  and  western  Europe,  the 
former  being  remarkable  for  its  monotonous  character  and  the  extent 
of  its  plains,  the  latter  for  the  greater  variety  and  form  of  its  moun- 
tain districts. 

A.     Geographical  view  of  Europe. 

§  42.   The  boundaries  of  Europe. 

On  the  north  the  Frozen  Ocean  (mare  congelatum,  188 
pigrum,  Cronium,  &c.),  on  the  west  the  Atlantic  or  outer  c 
sea,  on  the  south  the  Mediterranean  or  inner  sea, on  the 
east  the  Tanais,  the  Palus  Mseotis,  the  Cimmerian 
Bosporus,  the  Pontus  Euxlnus,  the  Thracian  Bos- 
porus,   the    Propontis,    the    Hellespont,    and    the 
^Egean  Sea. 

§  43.   The  principal  mountains  of  Europe. 
1.  The  Pyrenees  (T«  nvgyvcila,  Pyrenaei  montes)  ;  2.189 
The  Alps  (ul  "Ainu?,  Alpes) ;    3.  The  Apennines  (T«D 
*Antvvlva}   Apennmus) ;     4.    The    Hsemus    (6  Aifiog)  or 
Balkan;  5.  The  Car  path  i  an  mountains  (6  Ka^naTr^) ;  6. 
The  Ural  or  Hyperborean  mountains;  7.  TheKjolen 
[Koelen,  or  Fiell]  mountains  (Sevo  mons  ?).      The  Her- 
cynian  forest. 

§  44.   The  waters  of  Europe. 
SEAS  AND  GULFS.' 
1.  The  Frozen  Ocean.      2.  The  Atlantic,  which  at  190 

1  No  mention  is  made  here  of  those  waters  for  which  names  are 
not  found  in  ancient  authors.  The  titles  which  often  appear  in  maps 
have  no  classical  authority,  and  are  generally  borrowed  from  such 
writers  as  Cellarius  or  Cluverus. 


98  EUROPE.  [191—193.  §44. 

(190)  once  divides  and  connects  the  two  most  civilized  quarters 
A  of  the  globe  ;  with  its  several  divisions,  viz. — 

a.  Not  surrounded  by  land:    1.    The  Cantabrian  or 
Aquitanian  Sea  (now  bay  of  Biscay) ;  2.  The  Britannic  Sea 
(la  Manche,  or  Straits  of  Calais)  ;  3.  The  Caledonian  Sea 
(now  also  Minsh) ;    4.  The  German  Ocean  (rtppuvixbg 
3Jlxtav6?)  or  North  sea. 

b.  Inland  seas:    1.    The  Suevian  or  Sarmatian  sea1 
(now  the  Eastern  Ocean)  ;  2.  The  Mediterranean  or  Inner 
Sea,  which  at  the  same  time  separates  and  unites  the  three 
continents  of  the  old  world,  is  divided  into  a  western  basin, 

B  and  an  eastern  almost  double  the  size  of  the  other.  The 
first  of  these  comprehends  the  Ligurian  gulf  (Gulf  of 
Genoa),  and  the  Tuscan  or  Tyrrhenian  sea  (between 
Italy  and  its  three  great  islands),  the  other  comprises  the 
Adriatic  Sea  with  the  Tergestine  bay  (bay  of  Trieste), 
the  Ionian  Sea  with  the  Tarentine  and  Corinthian 
gulfs  (gulf  of  Lepanto),  and  the  ^Egean  Sea  (now  Archi- 
pelago), with  the  Therm  a  ic  gulf  (gulf  of  Salonichi);  3. 
The  Propontis  (sea  of  Marmora);  4.  The  Pontus 
Euxinus  (Black  Sea),  entirely  without  islands;  5.  The 
Mseotis  (sea  of  Azov). 

191  STRAITS. 

c  1.  Fretum  Gaditanum  or  Herculeum  (straits  of 
Gibraltar);  2.  Fretum  Siculum  (Faro  di  Messina);  3. 
He llespont us  (straits  of  Dardanelles) ;  4.  Thracian 
Bosp 6 r us  (straits  of  Constantinople) ;  5.  Cimmerian 
Bospdrus  (straits  of  Kaffa  or  Jenikale). ' 

192  LAKES. 

v  1.  In  Greece,  the  Copais;  2.  In  Upper  Italy,  Lacus 
Verbanus  (Lago  Maggiore),  Lacus  Larius  (Lago  di 
Como).  L.  Benacus  (Lagodi  Garda)  ;  3.  In  the  country 
of  the  Helvetii ;  L.  Brigantinus  (Boden-See,  or  Lake  of 
Constance),  L.  Lemanus  (Lake  of  Geneva). 

193  RIVERS. 

a.  Flowing  into  the  Atlantic — 1.  The  B  set  is  (Gua- 
dalquivir); 2.  The  Anas(Guadiana);  3.  Tagus(Tago); 
4.  Duriiis  (Duero) ;  5.  Garumna  (Garonne) ;  6.  The 
Liger  (Loire);  7.  The  Sequana  (Seine). 

1  The  Eastern  Ocean  was  considered  by  the  ancients,  not  as  a 
Mediterranean,  but  as  a  portion  of  the  Oceanus  Septentrionalis ; 
Tacitus  Germ.  c.  40.  43  and  44,  names  it  the  Ocean.  The  term 
"  Suevicum  mare,"  indicates  the  southern  portion  of  the  eastern  sea. 


194.  §  45-1  EUROPE.  99 

1.  Into  the  German  ocean — 1.  The  Tame  sis  (Thames);  (193) 
Scald  is  (Scheldt);  3.  Rhenus  (Rhine);  4.  VisurgisA 
(Weser);  5.  A  Ibis  (Elbe). 

Tributaries  of  the  Rhine — On  the  right  hand  the  Nicer  (Neckar), 
M  oenus  (Main),  and  the  Lupin  or  Luppia  (Lippe)  ;  left,  the 
Mosella  (Moselle),  and  the  Mosa  (Maas  or  Meuse). 

c.  Into  the  Suevian  sea— I.  The  Viadus1  (Oder);  2. 
The  Vistula. 

d.  The  Mediterranean  sea  receives  but  few  great  rivers  B 
—1.  The  Iberus  (Ebro);  2.  Rhodanus  (Rhone),  with 
the  Arar  (Saone);  3.  The  Arnus  (Arno);  4.  Tiberis 
(Tiber);    5.  Through   the   Adriatic   sea,   the   A  the  sis 
(Adige)  and  Pad  us  (Po). 

e.  The  Pontus  Euxinus  receives  within  its  narrow  limits 
four  of  the  greatest  European  streams — 1.  The  Ister,  the 
upper  part  of  which  was  called  Danubius  (the  Danube)  ; 
2.  The Tyras  (Dniester);  3.  The  Borysthenes  (Dnie- 
per); 4.  (Through  the  Mseotis)  the  Tanais  (Don). 

Tributaries  of  the  Ister — a.  On  the  right  the  I  s  a  r  s  a  (Isar) ,  IE  n  u  s  c 
(Inn),   Arabo    (Raab),   Dravus   (Drau),   Savus   (Sau) ;   b.  left, 
Cusus  (Waag),  Tibiscus  (Theiss),  Hierasus  (Pruth). 

f.  Into  the  Caspian  sea — The  Rha  (Volga),  the  most 
considerable  river  of  Europe. 

§  45.   The  countries  of  Europe. 

A.  ON  THE  CONTINENT  PROPER — 1.  Gallia;  2.  Ger- 194 
mania  ;  3.  The  southern  Danube  countries(Vindelicia, 
Rhaetia,  Noricum,  and  Pannonia);    4.  Dacia;  5. 
European  Sarmatia. 

B.  THE   PENINSULAS   (or  limbs   of  Europe)—!.  The  D 
four  southern,  Hispania,  Italia,  the  Greek  peninsula 
(Illyria,  Moasia,  Macedonia,  Thrace,  and  Greece),  and  the 
Tauric  Chersonesus  (now  Krim  [Crimea']),  the  first 
being  the  entrance  from  Europe  into  Africa,  the  third  into 
Asia.     2.  The  two  northern:  the  Cimbrian  peninsula 
(Jutland)  and  Scandinavia  (also  Baltia,  now  Sweden 
and  Norway,  the  last  of  which  was  also  called  Nerigos). 

1  The  OfriaSos,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  for  which  the  name  of 
Viadrus  has  been  unmeaningly  substituted  by  modern  geographers, 
is  generally  taken  for  the  Oder.  Other  writers,  however,  (Reichard, 
Giesebrecht,  and  von  Spruner),  take  the  £w</?of  (Suevus)  for  the 
Oder,  and  the  Viadus  for  the  Wipper. 


100  EUROPE. GREECE.   [195 — 197.  §  45 

195      THE  ISLANDS. 

A  1.  In  the  Atlantic — Britannia  or  Albion,  Hibernia 
or  lerne  (Ireland),  the  Hebudesor  Ebudes  (Hebrides), 
the  Orcades  (Orkney  islands),  Thule  (Iceland?). 

2.  In  the  Suevian  sea,  the  island  of  the  goddess  Hertha 
(Rugen  ?). 

B  3.  In  the  Mediterranean — The  Pity USEB  (among  these 
was  Ebusus  or  Ebusus,  hod.  Ivica)  and  the  Bale  a  res 
(also  called  ItymprMu),  of  which  the  largest  are  the 
Balearis  major  and  minor  (now  Majorca  and  Minorca), 
Sardo  or  Sardinia,  Cyrnos  or  Corsica,  jEthalia  or 
llva  (now  Elba),  Trinacria  or  Sicilia,  Mellte 
(now  Malta). 

4.  In  the  Ionian  sea — Corcyraor  Kerkyra  (Corfu), 
Leucadia  (now  S.  Maura),  Ithaca  (Theaki),  Cephal- 
lenia  (Cephalonia),Zakynthus  (now  Zante),  Cy  thera 
(now  Cerigo). 

c  5.  In  the  JEgean  sea — Greta  now  (Candia,)  the  Cy- 
clades,  Eubcea  (now  Negropont). 


B.   INDIVIDUAL  STATES  OF  EUROPE. 
I.    The   Greeks. 

Sources  of  Information. 

196  Their  historical  writers,  strictly  so  called,  were  preceded  by:  a. 
the  CYCLIC  POETS,  who  used  to  repeat  in  a   continuous  form    the 
various  legendary  ballads  («t>*Aovj),  and  the  Logograpki,  who  first 
related  the  legends  in  prose  (Aoyovj).     Such  were  Hecataeus,  Charon, 
Hellanicus,  and  others,  of  whose  works  only  detached  fragments  have 
reached  us. 

197  THE  HISTORIANS. 

jj  1.  HERODOTUS  (pater  historiae),  born  at  Halicarnaseus,  B.  c.  484. 
He  wrote,  after  his  great  journey  (through  Greece,  Macedonia, 
Thrace,  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Libya),  a  history  of  the  Persian  wars  to 
the  retreat  of  the  Persians  from  Europe — with  episodes  concerning 
the  early  history  of  that  people,  and  the  nations  who  came  into 
contact  with  them,  in  nine  books  (loroptw'),  which  he  revised  and 
completed  at  Thurii.  He  is  said  to  have  read  his  work  in  public  at 
the  Olympic  games  (?).  2.  THUCYDIDES,  born  at  Athens,  B.  c.  474,  a 
commander  in  the  Peloponnesian  war — superseded  in  his  command. 
In  his  place  of  banishment  on  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  he  collected 
materials  for  his  history  (ivyypntyn  in  eight  books)  of  the  Pelopon- 
neaian  war,  reaching  to  the  year  411.  3.  XENOPHON,  born  at  Athens 
in  443  (?),a  disciple  of  Socrates,  banished  from  Athens  for  Laconism ; 
he  wrote,  a.  'EAAijvurd  (seven  books),  a  continuation  of  the  history 
of  Thucydides  to  the  battle  of  Mantinea ;  b.  'AvdffaPis  (seven 


198,  199.    §  45.]          EUROPE.— GREECE.  101 

books) ;   c.  Kvpov   iraifoia  (eight   books)  ;    d.    Adyoj   els   'Ay»?<riAao»/.  (197) 
4.  POLYBIUS  of  Megalopolis  (205 — 131),  author  of  a  practical  uni-  ^ 
versal  liistory  Jo-rofxui*'  40  13.),  from  the  commencement  of  the  second 
Punic  war  to  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans.     5.  Dio- 
DORUS  SICULUS,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  wrote  a  /?i#Ajo0»j*i»  iaropiKjj 
(in  forty  books).      6.    PLUTARCH  (born  A.  D.  50  at  Chaeronea) :    he 
wrote  forty-four  /?«n  TrupaAAr/W,  and  five  separate  biographies.     Of 
Diodorus,  only  books  1 — 5=11 — 20  remain. 

GEOGRAPHERS. 

1.  STRABO  (in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era), in  book  8 — 10  JQQ 
of  his  yEwyjDa(/>i«a.     2.  PAUSANius  (born  at  Rome  in  the  second  cen-  B 
tury),  in  his  description  of  Greece  ('EAAd<Jos  nspifiyriais,  in  ten  books). 
3.  CLAUDIUS  PTOLEMJEUS  (an  Egyptian  who  flourished  in  the  second 
century),  wrote  yewypa^ncrj  fy/jyijffis  (in  eight  books). 

The  chronicle  of  the  Parian  marbles  is  a  tablet,  discovered  in 
the  island  of  Paros,  and  now  preserved  at  Oxford,  containing  a  chro- 
nological list  of  the  principal  events  in  the  history  of  Greece,  and 
particularly  of  Athens ;  1381  years,  from  1450  B.  c.  to  264  B.  c. 

Of  Latin  historians,  who  have  written  upon  Grecian  history,  we 
have  Cornelius  Nepos  [or  the  lives  that  go  under  his  name]  and  Jus- 
tin. Besides  the  historians,  we  have,  for  the  first  mythical  period, 
the  library  of  Apollodorus,  for  the  third,  the  orations  of  Isocrates, 
^Eschynes,  and  Demosthenes,  and  for  constitutional  history,  the  poli- 
tics of  Aristotle  ;  for  geography,  Pomponius  Mela,  first  cent.  A.  c. 

MODERN  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

a.  Geography.    Cramer,  A  geographical  and  historical  description  199 
of  Ancient  Greece  ;  3  vols.  8vo.    Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  ch.  1.  c 
Geographical  outlines  of  Greece.    Grote,  part  2,  ch.  1,  General  geo- 
graphy and  limits  of  Greece.     Gell,  Itinerary  of  Greece  ;  id.  Journey 

in  the  Morea.    Leake's  Travels  in  Northern  Greece.     Wordsworth's 
Classical  tour  in  Attica,  &c. 

b.  History — The  best  general  histories  of  Greece  are  in  English,  D 
although  particular  parts  have  been  treated  with  great  success  by  other 
nations,  and  especially  by  the  Germans.      Grote's  is  the  only  work 
in  which  the  "Legendary  Period"  is  satisfactorily  treated,  without 
which  Grecian  character  and  half  of  the  subsequent  history  is  almost 
unintelligible.      The  vast  learning,  sound  judgment,  liberal  views, 
statesmanlike  sagacity,  critical  acumen,  and  classical  taste  of  this 
writer,  must   give  his  work  the  first  place  among  the  histories  of 
Greece.     (Grote's  Greece.    6  vols.  are  published  down  to  the  peace 
of  Nikias.)     Next  in  merit  is  Thirlwall  (8  vols.  8vo.),  deficient  in 
grouping  and  judging  the  legendary  history,  inferior  in  learning  and 
philosophy  to  Grote,  but  far  superior  to  all  his  predecessors.     These 
works  have  entirely  thrown  out  Mitford,  who  had  but  little  relish  for 
antiquity,  and  wrote  ancient  history  with  the  pen  of  a  modern  parti- 
san ;  and  Gillies,  who  though  more  readable  than   Mitford,  is  every 
way  unequal  to  such  a  subject.     Eliot  has  a  very  interesting  chapter 
on  Grecian  liberty,  in  his  Liberty  of  Rome ;  v.  also  Greene's  His- 
torical Series,  vol.  1. 


102  EUROPE. GREECE.  [200,  201.  §  46,  47. 

(199)      Chronology — Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenici,  or  Civil  and  Literary  Chro- 
A  nology  of  Greece  ;  a  valuable  work,  when  the  author  once  gets  on 
historical  ground. 

Religion,  Politics,  Commerce,  $c. — Heeren,  vol.  6  of  the  English 
edition,  originally  translated  by  Mr.  Bancroft  and  published  in  the 
United  States.  Herman,  Political  Antiquities  of  Greece,  1  vol.  8vo. 
(from  the  German),  Oxford,  1836  St.  John's  History  of  the  Man- 
ners, Customs,  Arts,  &c.,  of  Ancient  Greece,  3  vols.  8vo.  Potter's 
Grecian  Antiquities.  Bojesen's  Manual  of  Grecian  Antiquities,  Ap- 
pletou's  edition,  1  vol.  I2mo. 

A.  GEOGRAPHY  OF  GREECE. 
§  46.   The  name  of  Greece. 

200  In  the  most  remote  times  there  was  no  general  name  for 
B  the  whole  of  Greece,  any  more  than  for  Italy  and  Asia 

Minor.  The  name  of  Hellas  had  various  significations  at 
different  periods.  Originally  it  indicated  merely  the  city 
of  Hellas  in  Thessaly  ;  at  a  later  period,  the  term  com- 
prehended  the  greater  part  of  Thessaly,  and  afterwards  it 
was  applied  to  the  whole  of  midland  Greece,  which  was 
called  Hellas  proper  in  contradistinction  to  Peloponnesus. 
c  After  the  Persian  war  Peloponnesus  itself  was  also  in- 
cluded, and  at  length  (after  the  Macedonian  war)  the  term 
was  understood  as  designating  every  country  inhabited  by 
Hellenes. 

THE  TERM  ACHJEAN  LAND  ('Audi's  yata  in  Homer),  is  applied  in 
strictness  of  speech  only  to  a  small  portion  of  southern  Thessaly, 
where  Achaeus,  the  son  of  Xuthus,  reigned  ;  but  in  a  secondary  sense 
it  is  employed  also  to  indicate  the  rest  of  Greece,  especially  Pelo- 
ponnesus, of  which  the  descendants  of  Achaus  had  made  themselves 
masters. 

.  In  like  manner  ARGOS,  originally  the  name  of  a  town  in  Argolis, 
was  used  for  Peloponnesus,  and  at  last  for  the  whole  of  Greece. 

D  The  term  Graecia  (rqatxol)  was  never  employed  by 
the  Greeks  themselves,  but  was  the  only  name  given  by 
the  Romans  to  the  whole  of  the  country.  Originally  it 
was  limited  to  the  district  of  Dodona  in  Epirus. 

As  a  Roman  province,  Greece  (with  the  exception  of 
Thessaly,  Epirus,  and  Acarnania),  was  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  Achaia. 

§  47.   The  boundaries  of  Greece. 

On  the  north  the  Macedonian  (or  Cambunian)  and 
Ceraunian  mountains  ;  east,  the  ^Egean  and  Myrtoan  seas ; 

201  west  and  south,  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas. 


202—204.  §48.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  103 

No  country  of  Europe  presents,  in  proportion  to   its  size,  such  an  A 
extent  of  coast,  or  such  facilities  of  approach. 

§  48.   The  mountains  of  Greece. 

A.  1.  In  NORTHERN  GREECE,  the  Find  us  (a  continuation  202 
of  the  Scardas,  from  7000  to  8000  feet  in  height)  forms  B 
the  line  of  separation  from  which  the  rivers  flow  in  dif- 
ferent   directions    either  into  the  Ionian  or  ^Egean  sea. 

Its  branches  are :  a.  westwards,  the  Ceraunian  chain,  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  half  Grecian  tribes  in  Epirus ; 
the  steep  promontory  in  which  it  terminates  (called  Acro- 
ceraunia),  marks  the  division  of  the  Ionian  sea  from  the 
Adriatic,  b.  Eastwards:  2.  Chains  at  right  angles  with 
the  Ceraunia :  1:  The  CAMBUNIAN  in  the  north  (6000 
feet),  the  continuation  of  which,  Mount  OLYMPUS  [now 
ElymboY  (6000  feet),  was  supposed  to  be  the  habitation 
of  the  gods;  2.  The  Othrys  in  the  south,  forming  with 
Pel  ion  [Plesnia]  and  the  round-headed  Ossa  [Kissovo] 
(5UOO  feet),  the  eastern  frontier  of  Thessaly.  The  last  c 
of  these  is  separated  from  the  southern  slope  of  Olympus 
only  by  the  narrow  pass  of  Tern pe.  Thessaly,  therefore, 
is  a  basin  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  mountains,  the  waters 
of  which  are  conveyed  by  the  river  Peneus  through  the 
narrow  channel  of  Tempe  into  the  sea-. 

B.  In  CENTRAL  GREECE  :  a.  in  the  north,  continuations  203 
of  the  Pindus,  such  as  the  OS t a  [Catavothra,  &c.]  (4000 
feet),  with  the  famous  straits  of  THERMOPYLAE,  once  a  very 
narrow  pass  along  the  shore ;    b.  in  the  south,  detached 
groups  of  mountains  and  hills,  for  the  most  part  barren  and  D 
inhospitable ;    e.  g.  PARNASSUS    [Lyakoura]    (7500  feet), 
with  its  three  abrupt  peaks,  HELICON  [Zagora,  or  Paleo 
Vouni]  (5300    feet),  covered    with    forests,    the    rugged 
CITHJERON  [E/atea]  (3900  feet),  the  HYMETTUS  [Trello- 
vouno]  (2700  feet),  the  PENTELICUS  [Pentele],  &c. 

C.  The  PELOPONNESUS  forms  a  table-land  (2000  feet  204 
above   the   level    of  the  sea)  the  flattest  part  of  which 
(Arcadia)  is  by  no  means  level,  but  broken  into  isolated 
groups  of  mountains  (some  of  them  6000  feet  above  the 
sea),  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  still  loftier  chains,  the 
branches  of  which  form  the  four  isthmuses  of  the  peninsula. 

1  [Arrowsmith  gives :  Olympus,  6250  feet ;  Ossa,  4000  ;  Pelion, 
4000  ;  Pindus,  8500  ; 


104  EUROPE. GREECE.  [205.    §49. 

(204)  The  most  steep  and  lofty  is  the  northern  border  (Achaia),  which 
A  reaches  its  greatest  height  (7200  feet)  in  the  mountain  of  CYLLENE, 
the  continuations  of  which  stretch  west  towards  Elis,  and  southeast 
into  Argolis.  The  eastern  (Parthenius)  sends  out  a  spur  as  far  as 
the  promontory  of  Malea,  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Laconia, 
whilst  the  more  broken  western  ridge  (Erymanthus)  slopes  very  gra- 
dually down  to  the  level  coast,  its  southern  continuation  intersecting 
the  isthmus  of  Messenia.  The  southern  is  connected  with  the  T ay- 
get  us,  the  highest  ridge  (7400  feet)  in  Peloponnesus.  It  traverses 
the  western  isthmus  of  Laconia  to  the  promontory  of  Taenarum  (Cape 
Matapan). 

B  PROMONTORIES:  A  ctium  on  the  Ambracian  gulf  (battle 
31).  Rhion  and  Antirrhion  [or,  Rhium  and  Anti- 
Rhium]  opposite  each  other  on  the  Corinthian  gulf.  Malea 
[also,  Malea]  and  T  sen  arum,  the  extreme  points  of  Laco- 
nia. Sunium,  the  southernmost  point  of  Attica.  Arte- 
misium,  the  northern  point  of  the  island  of  Eubcea 
(battle  480). 

§  49.   The  Waters  of  Greece. 

205      SEAS.— 1.    The  ^%e«n  sea ;    2.   The  Myrtoan  sea,  be- 

c  tween  the  eastern  coast  of  Peloponnesus  and  the  islands ; 

3.  The  Ionian  sea.     The  currents  of  the  two  last  meet  at 

the  promontory  of   Malea,  which  on   that    account  was 

notorious  for  shipwrecks. 

GULFS.— 1.  The  Thermaic  (hod.  gulf  of  Salonichi); 
2.  The  Pagassean  and  Malian  bays;  3.  The  Saronic 
gulf  (now  the  gulf  of  Egina);  4.  The  Argolic  (gulf  of 
Napoli) ;  5.  The  Laconic  (gulf  of  Kolokythia) ;  6.  The 
Messenian  (also  the  Coronaean,  now  gulf  of  Koron) ; 
7.  The  Corinthian  (now  gulf  of  Lepanto),  with  the 
Crisseanbay;  8.  The  Ambracian  (gulf  of  Arta). 
p  STRAIT. — The  Eurlpus,  between  Eubcea  and  Bceotia. 

LAKES. — 1.  Acherusia,  in  Epirus;  2.  The  Copais, 
which  communicates  with  the  Eubcean  sea  by  long  subter- 
raneous channels. 

The  RIVERS,  as  in  every  mountainous  country,  are  nu- 
merous ;  but  on  account  of  the  close  vicinity  of  the  sea 
on  all  sides,  and  the  consequent  narrowness  of  the  con- 
tinent, they  are  very  insignificant,  and  so  ill-supplied  with 
water,  as  to  be  for  the  most  part  dry  in  summer.  1.  Pe- 
nfius  [Salembrid],  flowing  into  the  Thermaic  gulf;  2. 
AchelOus  (now  Aspro-potamo),  between  Acarnania  and 
jEtolia,  flowing  into  the  Ionian  sea;  3.  Cephissus,  into 


206 — 208,  §50 — 52.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  105 

the  lake  Copais  ;    4.    Alpheus  [Rouphid],  into  the  Ionian  A 
sea ;  5.  EurOtas  [Iris.  Basilopotamo]  into  the  Laconic  gulf. 

§  50.   Climate  and  products  of  Greece. 

In  no  country,  perhaps,  is  the  contrast  of  climate  so  206 
great  as  in  Greece.  The  temperature  varies  with  the 
difference  of  soil ;  so  that  whilst  Laconia  is  enjoying  spring, 
and  Messenia  summer,  the  winter  has  scarcely  ended  in 
Arcadia.  The  months  from  May  to  September,  inclusive, 
are  extraordinarily  dry,  scarcely  any  rain  falling  except  in 
winter,  when  it  descends  in  torrents,  generally  on  the  lands 
of  moderate  elevation,  in  the  form  of  squalls,  with  thunder 
and  lightning.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  mountains  are 
covered  with  almost  perpetual  snow. 

PRODUCTS. 

1.  Mineral  kingdom. — The  precious  metals  were,  for  the  most  part,  B 
rare.     There  were  gold  mines  on  Thasos  (and  Siphnos),  silver  mines 
in  the  mountains  of  Laurium  [Aauptoi/,  or  Aavpetov]  in  Attica,  copper 
and  iron  near  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  marble  in  Pentelicus  and  Paros. 

2.  Vegetable  kingdom. — The  most   productive  grain  was  barley 
(of  which  they  made  aX^«r«).     Among  the  varieties  of  trees  were  the 
silver  poplar,  the  Greek  cedar,  the  evergreen  cypress,  and  the  majestic 
plane.     Besides  an  abundance  of  fruit  of  other  sorts,  they  had  grapes, 
figs,  and  olives,  the  last  especially  in  Attica. 

3.  Animal    kingdom. — Bullocks,  sheep,  goats,  hogs,  and   mules,  c 
The  rearing  of  horses  was  rendered  very  difficult  by  the  mountainous 
character  of  the  country.     Pigeons  on  Cythera,  owls  at  Athens,  bees, 
especially  on  Mount  Hymettus,  fish,   dolphins.     The   country  was 
grievously  plagued  by  locusts. 

§  51.  Divisions  of  Greece. 

A.  NORTHERN  GREECE  contains — 1.  Thessaly;    2.207 
Epirus. 

B.  CENTRAL  GREECE,  or  Greece  Proper,  is  divided  into 
— 1.  Acarnania;  2.  ^Etolia;  S.Doris;  4.  Locris; 
5.  Phocis;  6.  Sceotia;  7.  Attica;  8.  Megaris. 

C.  SOUTHERN  GREECE,  or  Peloponnesus  ( formerly D 
*Aniat  now  the  Morea),  comprises — 1.    Corinthia;    2. 
Sicyonia;  3.  Phliasia;  4.  Achaia;    5.  Elis;    6. 
Messenia;  7.  Laconia;  8.  Argolis;  9.  Arcadia. 

D.  The  ISLANDS. 

§  52.   Topography  of  Greece. 

A.    NORTHERN  GREECE. 

1.  THESSALY  (named  also  Hellas,  compare  200),  the  208 
largest  district  of  Greece,  and  the  cradle  of  all  the  Grecian 


106  EUROPE. GREECE.        [209.  §52. 

(208)  tribes,  consists  principally  of  two  caldron-shaped  basins, 
A  the  greater  of  which  (according  to  Herodotus,  vii.  129) 
in  early  ages  was  a  lake,  until  Ossa  was  separated  from 
Olympus  by  an  earthquake,  and  an  outlet  made  for  the 
river  Peneus  through  the  narrow  valley  of  Tempe.  High 
mountains  (see  202,  c.)  inclose  a  plain,  well  adapted  for 
agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle ;  the  only  outlet  for 
he  waters  being,  as  we  have  mentioned,  the  narrow  fissure 
called  the  valley  of  Tempe  (described  by  Ovid.  Met.  i. 
569). 

B  This  district  was  divided  by  the  ancient  geographers  into  four 
circles  (Tetrades  or  Tetrarchies) :  Hestiseotis  in  the  north  (the 
Peneus  forms,  generally  speaking,  its  southern  boundary)  ;  Phthio- 
tis  in  the  south;  Thessaliotis  between  the  two  first- mentioned ; 
Pelasgiotis  in  the  east,  between  Ossa  and  Pelion. 

209  CITIES. — 1.  Phthia,  the  ancient  capital,  the  birth-place 
of  Achilles.  It  disappeared  at  an  early  period.  2.  Lamia 
(the  Lamian  war,  323).  3.  Pharsalus  (battle  in  48) ;  in 
the  vicinity  was  the  hill  of  Cynoscephale  (battle  in  197). 
4.  P  her  SB  (the  tyrants).  5.  Larissa  on  the  Peneus. 

C  The  district  of  MAGNESIA  on  the  sea-coast,  with  lolchos  (the  ren- 
dezvous of  the  Argonauts),  in  all  probability  did  not  belong  to  any  of 
the  tetrarchies  of  Thessaly,  not  having  been  subject  to  the  Thessah'ana 
when  that  division  was  made. 

2.  EPIRUS  (»j;i«0o£=the  continent),  in  the  Odyssey,  means 
that  part  of  the  continent  which  lies  immediately  opposite 
to  Ithaca ;  nor  was  it  until  a  later  period  that  the  name 
was  used  to  distinguish  the  country  bounded  by  the  Acro- 
ceraunian  mountains,  Pindus,  the  Ambracian  gulf,  and  the 
D  Ionian  sea.  On  account  of  its  volcanic  soil,  this  district 
was  supposed  to  communicate  with  the  infernal  regions  ; 
the  river  Acheron  [Mauro,  or  Souli],  which  flows  through 
the  lake  Acherusia,  and,  after  receiving  the  Cocytus  [Bas- 
sa],  empties  itself  into  the  Ionian  sea,  being  placed  in  the 
lower  world  by  the  poets. 

Epirus  was  inhabited  by  fourteen  distinct  Pelasgic  tribes,  ranked  as 
Greeks  by  Herodotus,  but  called  barbarians  by  Thucydides  and  every 
other  writer.  The  most  considerable  of  these  tribes  were  the  Chao- 
nians,  Thesprotians,  and  Molossians ;  after  whom  the  country  was 
divided  into  three  parts — Chaonia,  Thesprotia,  and  Molossis. 

Cities. — 1.  Ambracia  (now  Arta),  the  residence  of 
Pyrrhus ;  2.  Dod  6na,  with  the  most  ancient  Grecian  ora- 
cle (of  Zeus). 


210 214.  §  52.]    EUROPE. GREECE.  107 


B.     CENTRAL  GREECE,  OR  HELLAS,  IN  ITS  MORE 

RESTRICTED   SENSE. 

1.  ACARNANIA;    bounded  by  the  Ambracian  gulf,  the  210 
Achelous,  the  Corinthian  gulf,  and  the  Ionian  sea.    Cities.  A 
— 1 .  Stratus,  the  largest  city  of  the  district ;  2.  A  c  t  i  u  m, 
founded  by  Augustus  on  the  promontory  of  the  same  name, 
where  there  formerly  was  only  a  port  with  a  temple  (of 
Apollo). 

2.  ^ETOLIA.     Boundaries. — On  the  north,  Thessaly  and  211 
Epirus ;    east,  Locris  and  Doris ;    south,  the  Corinthian 
gulf;  west,  the  Achelous.     Capital  city,  Thermon  (also 
Therrnus),  seat  of  the  jEtolian  league  (Panoetolium). 

3.  DORIS. — This  rugged  little  state  contained  four  cities,  212 
named  the  Dorian  Tetrapolis.  B 

4.  LOCRIS — was  divided  into  two  districts,  inhabited  by  213 
three  tribes : — 

a.  That  on  the  Corinthian  gulf,  which  was  surrounded 
by  Phocis,  Doris,  and  JStolia,  was  inhabited  by  the  Ozo- 
lian  Locrians,  a  savage  predatory  tribe.      Cities. — 1. 
A mphissa  (destroyed  in  339).  2.  Naupactus  (nowLe- 
panto) ;  place  of  embarkation  of  the  Dorians  when  they 
passed  over  into  Peloponnesus — given  by  the  Athenians  to 
the  Messenians,  who  were  again  expelled  after  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war. 

b.  The  rest  of  the  district  on  the  Eubcean  sea  and  the  c 
Malian  gulf  was  inhabited  by  the  Opuntian  Locrians, 
with  their  capital  Opus  ;  and  northwards  from  these,  as 
far  as  Thermopylae,  were  the  EpicnemidianLocrians, 
so  named  from  the  mountain  Cnemis,  at  the  foot  of  which 
stood  the  city  of  Cnemides. 

5.  PHOCIS.     Cities. — 1.  Delphi  (in  Homer  Pytho),  on  214 
the  southwestern  declivity  of  Parnassus,  between  its  two 
orincipal  peaks.      Here  was  the  "  infallible  "  oracle  of 
Apollo  Pythius,  so  renowned  even  among  foreign  nations. 

Its  responses  were  delivered  by  the  Pythia,  seated  on  a  D 
golden  tripod,  placed  in  the  temple  over  the  prophetic 
cavern.  In  the  court  which  surrounded  the  temple  were 
votive  offerings  of  various  nations.  Individual  cities  had 
also  each  their  own  treasury.  The  reputation  of  the  oracle 
was  further  increased  by  the  choice  of  Delphi  as  the  place 
of  meeting  for  the  Amphictyonic  council,  and  the  celebra- 


108  EUROPE. GREECE.    [215,  216.  §  52 

(214)  tion  of  the  Pythian  games.     2.  Crisa  (also  Crissa),  or 

A  perhaps  (Cirrha  ?),  was  destroyed  in  the  time  of  Solon,  and 

its  territory  assigned  to  the  Delphic  god.     3.  El  ate  a,  in 

the  valley  of  the  Cephlsus,  the  key  of  Phocis  and  Bceotia. 

215  6.  BOZOTIA.     This  fertile  basin  is  formed  by  the  moun- 
tains of  Parnassus,  the  Helicon  (the  seat  of  the  Muses), 
with  its  numerous  springs ;  the  savage  Cithaeron,  and  the 
rugged  rocky  chain  of  Parnes ;  and  comprehends  within 
itself  several  plains  of  greater  or  smaller  dimensions, — a 
circumstance  which  rendered  Bceotia  the  battle-field  of 

B  Hellas,  as  Arcadia  was  that  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The 
more  considerable  of  the  Boeotian  cities  formed  a  confe- 
deracy under  the  Hegemony  of  Thebes.  Cities. — 1. 
The bae ;  also  Thebe  (iKfonvJb?) ;  the  acropolis  of  which 
was  founded  by  the  Phoenicians  under  Cadmus,  and  thence 
called  Cadmea.  According  to  the  legend,  the  walls  of  the 
lower  city  were  raised  by  the  notes  of  Amphlon's  lyre.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great  (335),  and  restored 
by  Cassander.  2.  Ore  horn  en  us,  formed  with  its  dis- 
trict, which  in  the  earliest  times  comprehended  the  whole  of 
western  Bceotia,  a  distinct  country,  not  attached  to  Bceotia 

c  until  after  the  Trojan  war.  Its  inhabitants  were  called 
Minyse  or  Minyans  (also  Phlegyans).  Victory  of  Sulla  in  86. 
3.  Plataea,  or  Plataeae  (on  the  northern  declivity  of  Cithae- 
ron),  which  separated  itself  from  the  Boeotian  confederacy 
(battle  in  479).  4.  Thespiae,  at  the  foot  of  Helicon  (obsti- 
nate courage  of  the  Thespians  in  the  battle  of  Thermopylae). 
Between  Thespiae  and  Plataeae  lay  probably  the  hamlet  of 
Leuctr  a  (battle  in  371).  5.  Tanagra(battle  in  457);  in 
the  district  belonging  to  which  were  A  u  1  i  s  (rendezvous  of 
the  Grecian  fleet  for  the  Trojan  war),  Delium  (battle  in 

D  394),  and(Enophyta(battlein456).  6.  Haliartus,on 
the  lake  Copais  (battle  in  394).  7.  Coronea  (battle  in 
394).  8.  Chae rone  a,  a  frontier  fortress  on  the  side  of 
Phocis  (battles  in  338  and  86). 

216  7.     ATTICA    (Ifrnxij).      Boundaries. — On   the    north, 
Bceotia;   west,  Megaris ;  south,  the  Saronic  gulf;  east, 
the  jEgean  sea.      Division  into  four,  from  the  time  of 
Cleisthenes  ten,  and  at  a  still  later  period  twelve  Phylse  ; 
which  were  subdivided  into  demi,  the  number  of  which 
amounted  at  one  time  to  174.  Cities. — 1.  Athens  ('Adrivai), 
consisted  of  two  principal  parts,  viz.,  the  city,  and  its  three 


217,  218.  §52.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  109 

ports,  Phaleron  [or  Phalerum],  Munychia,  and  Pireeus  [in  (216) 
Greek,  /Zcfpaeei;?],  which  were  united  to  the  city  by  two  long  A 
walls  (T«  ffxe'Ajj).      After  its  demolition  by  the  Persians, 
Themistocles  rebuilt  Athens  in  a  more  magnificent  style, 
surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  joined  it  to  the  Piraeus. 

The  city,  which  stood  in  the  plain  Cecropia,  on  the  banks  of  the  217 
river  Ilissus,  consisted  of — a.  the  Acropolis  (called  also  Cecropia), 
on  a  steep  rock,  crowned  with  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of  Minerva, 
built  entirely  of  white  Pentelic  marble  (by  Ictlnus  and  Callicrates), 
and  approached  by  a  portico  termed  the  Propylaea  (erected  by 
Mnesicles).  In  this  temple  stood  a  statue  of  Pallas  Athene  (by 
Phidias),  thirty-seven  feet  in  height,  and  carved  in  gold  and  ivory. 
On  the  frieze  was  a  model  in  relievo  of  the  Panathenaic  procession,  B 
and  in  the  tympanum  the  victory  of  Athene  over  Poseidon,  exqui- 
sitely represented  in  a  group  of  colossal  statues.  On  the  side  of  the 
Propylaea  stood  a  bronze  statue,  seventy  feet  high,  of  Athene  Pro- 
machus,cast  by  Phidias,  b.  The  lower  town. — In  the  western  quarter 
of  the  city,  on  an  elevation,  was  the  Pnyx,  where  the  assemblies  of 
the  people  were  held  ;  and  on  another  eminence,  the  Areopagus, 
from  which  there  was  a  thoroughfare  through  the  street  of  Hermes, 
by  the  Poikile  [or,  Facile]  (adorned  with  frescoes  of  the  battle  of 
Marathon  by  Polygnotus)  to  the  new  Agora  ;  and  thence  along  the 
Tripod  street,  by  the  Prytaneum  (where  ambassadors  and  meritorious 
citizens  were  entertained  at  the  public  cost),  to  the  great  theatre  of 
Dionysos  [Bacchus].  In  the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  city,  after-  c 
wards  called  Hadrian's  town,  stood  the  Olympieion,  or  temple  of 
Zeus,  with  a  colossal  statue  of  the  god,  in  gold  and  ivory.  Without 
the  city  were  three  Gymnasia,  viz. — a.  the  Academy  [Academia], 
where  Plato  taught ;  b.  the  Cynosarges  ;  c.  the  Lyceum,  where  Aris- 
totle used  to  walk  with  his  disciples  (hence  the  term  Peripatetics). 
On  the  other  side  of  the  Ilissus  was  the  stadium  (of  Herodes  Atticus) 
for  public  games. 

2,  E  leu  sis,  with  its  temple  and  mysteries  of  Demeter 
[Ceres].  3.  Suni um ;  a  fortress  on  the  promontory  of  the 
same  name,  with  the  temple  of  Athene  Sunias,  of  which  the  D 
ruins  are  still  visible.  4.  Marathon,  on  the  plain  of  the 
same  name,  with  monuments  (still  in  existence),  erected  in 
commemoration  of  the  battle  in  490.  5.  Phyle,  where 
Thrasybulus  assembled  the  opponents  of  the  thirty  tyrants. 
6.  Decelea,  fortified  by  the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war. 

8.  MEGARIS.  Boundaries. — On  the  north,  Bceotia  ;  218 
east,  Attica,  and  the  Saronic  gulf;  south,  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth  ;  west,  the  Corinthian  gulf.  In  the  city  of  Megara 
(T«  M.),  which  at  an  earlier  period  belonged  to  Attica,  the 
Dorians,  on  their  return  from  the  war  against  Codrus, 
founded  a  colony. 


110  EUROPE. GREECE.       [219 223.    §52. 


C.     THE  PELOPONNESUS. 

219  1.    CORINTHIA,  with  the   city    of  CORINTH    (formerly 
A  Ephyra),  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  mountain,  on  which  stood 

the  Acro-Corinthus,  the  strongest  fortress  in  Greece,  and 
key  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  situation  of  Corinth  ren- 
dered it  the  emporium  of  the  maritime  traffic,  not  only 
between  northern  and  southern  Greece,  but  between  Italy 
and  Asia,  as  well  as  the  chief  seat  of  manufacturing  in- 
dustry and  the  arts  (the  Corinthian  order  of  architecture, 
vases,  Corinthian  brass).  The  successful  cultivation  of 
these  various  branches  of  commerce  rendered  it  the  most 
populous  (300,000  inhabitants)  and  wealthy,  but  at  the 
B  same  time  the  most  dissolute,  of  all  the  Grecian  cities.  It 
was  demolished  (with  the  exception  of  the  citadel)  by 
Mummius  in  146,  and  rebuilt  by  Csesar.  On  the  isthmus 
stood  a  temple,  a  stadium,  and  a  theatre  of  Poseidon 
[Neptune],  where  the  Isthmian  games  were  celebrated. 

220  2.    SICYONIA,  with  the  city  of  S  icy  on  (also  ^Egialia), 
near  the  coast  of  the  Corinthian  gulf,  was  also  famous  for 
Grecian  manufactures  and  works  in  metal,  as  well  as  for 
painting  and  sculpture. 

221  3.    PHLIASIA.     The  city  of  Phi  ins,  with  its  little  ter- 
c  ritory,  formed  an  independent  state. 

222  4.  ACHAIA  (also  Achaia,  formerly  jEgialos),  extended 
from  Sicyonia  along  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus. 
Here,  as  in  all  the  settlements  of  the  lonians,  we  find  a 
confederacy  (of  twelve  hamlets),  with  a  democratic  con- 
stitution.     Cities. — 1.   Helice,  the  ancient  capital,  in- 
gulfed in  373  by  one  of  the  earthquakes  so  frequent  on 
this  coast.      Its  territory  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  neigh- 
boring state.      2.    jEgium,  the  station  of  the  Panegyris. 
3.  PatrtE  (now  Patras),  a  sea- port. 

223  5.    ELIS  (also  Eleia),  divided  by  mountains  into  three 
D portions,  viz. — 1.  Elis  proper,  or  the  "hollow,"  with  the 

capital  Elis,  a  city  without  walls,  and  its  port  of  Cyllene. 
2.  Pisatis,withOlympia.  This  was  not,  strictly  speaking, 
a  town,  but  ranked  as  such  on  account  of  the  multitude  of 
buildings,  groves,  altars,  and  places  for  public  games  and 
combats,  belonging  to  the  temple  of  Zeus  Olympius,  and 
occupied  at  the  Olympic  games.  In  a  grove  of  olives 
(named  Altis)  stood  the  temple,  with  a  statue  of  the  god 


224 — 227.  §52.]    EUROPE. — GREECE.  jl, 

in  a  sitting  position,  carved  by  Phidias,  in  gold  ana  .*ory, 
and  reaching  to  the  ceiling  of  the  temple.  The  length  of  the  A 
stadium  (one-fortieth  of  a  geographical  mile)  was  the  Greek 
standard  measure  of  distance.  3.  T  r  i  p  h  y  1  i  a,  with  Pylus. 

6.  MESSENIA  (also  Messene).   Cities. — 1.  Pylus  (now  224 
Navarino),  the  residence  of  Nestor,  with  a  harbor  pro- 
tected by  the  island  of  Sphacteria ;  2.  IthOme,  a  fortress 

on  a  high  hill,  at  the  foot  of  which  Epaminondas  built  (3) 
Messene;  4.  Ira,  defended  for  eleven  years  by  Aristo- 
menes. 

7.  LACONIA  (y/axwwx??).     Boundaries,  in  the  more  con-  225 
fined  sense — Messenia,  Arcadia,  Argolis,  the  sea.     From  B 
the  second  Messenian  war  to  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  Mes- 
senia was  reckoned  as  belonging  to  Laconia.     Cities. — 1. 
Sparta  (2naQiri),  Lacedeemon  ;  on  several  eminences 

on  the  declivity  of  Taygetus  and  the  banks  of  the  Eurotas  ; 
without  walls,  until  it  was  fortified  by  the  tyrant  Nabis. 
2.  Helos  (To"£Aos),  on  the  low  lands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Eurotas.  Its  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
bondsmen  by  the  Spartans.  3.  Sellasia  (battle  in  222). 

8.  ARGOLIS    (also  TO  "Agyos  and  *j  3AQydtx).      Cities. —  226 
1.  Argos  (in  Latin  also  Argi),  the  most  ancient  city  inPelo-  c 
ponnesus,  gave  its  name  to  the  whole  district.     Its  acro- 
polis, named  Larissa,  was  a  Pelasgian  building,  with  Cyclo- 
pian  walls.    2.  Nauplia  (near  what  is  now  called  Napoli 

di  Romania),  the  sea-port  of  Argos.  3.  My  cense;  of 
which  the  Cyclopian  walls,  the  lions'-gate,  and  what  is 
called  the  treasury  of  Atreus,  still  remain.  The  residence 
of  Agamemnor..  4.  Tiryns,  with  its  Cyclopian  walls,  of 
which  remains  still  exist.  5.  L  e  r  n  e  (the  Lernsean  Hydra) ;  D 
N  e  m  e  a,  not  a  city,  but  merely  the  name  of  a  valley,  and 
of  the  temple  of  Zeus,  which  stood  there.  (The  Lion,  the 
Nemean  games.)  The  three  smaller  districts  of  Her- 
mione,  Troezene,  and  Epidaurus. 

9.  ARCADIA,  from  the  most  ancient  times  the  pasture  227 
country  of  Nomadic  herdsmen,  never  formed  a  whole,  po- 
litically speaking.     Cities. — 1.  Mantinea (battles  in 418 
and  362).     2.  T  e  g  e  a ;  which,  with  its  district  (Tegeatis), 
formed  one  of  the  most  considerable  cantons  of  Arcadia.  3. 
Megalopolis,  the  most  modern  and  largest  of  the  Arca- 
dian cities,  founded  by  the  advice  of  Epaminondas  in  371, 
and  peopled  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  (38)  circumjacent 

6* 


112  EUROPE. GREECE.    [228,  229.  §  52. 

(227)  hamlets.     It  was  destroyed  by  the  Spartans  under  Cleo- 
A  menes,  and  only  partially  rebuilt,  with  the  largest  theatre 
in  Greece  (native  city  of  Philopoemen  and  Polybius). 

D.  THE  GREEK  ISLANDS. 

228  I.  IN  THE  IONIAN  SEA. — 1.  Kerkyra,  or  Corcyra  (now 
Corfu),  in  Homer;  the  Scheria  inhabited  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians.    Capital— Corcyra,  a  colony  of  Corinth,  in  the 
lime  of  the  Persian  war,  the  most  considerable  naval  power 

B  after  Athens.  2.  Leucadia  (now  S.  Maura),  so  called 
from  its  chalky  soil,  was  originally  a  peninsula,  mentioned 
by  Homer  as  belonging  to  Epirus.  The  isthmus  was  dug 
through  by  the  Corinthians,  and  Leucadia  made  into  an 
island.  Capital — Leucas  (in  Homer  Nericon).  3.  The 
Cephallenic  islands,  or  islands  belonging  to  the  dominions 
of  Odysseus  [Ulysses],  viz. — a.  Ithaca  (now  Theaki), 
which  consists  of  two  rugged  mountain  masses,  united  by  a 
narrow  isthmus,  on  which  stood  the  city  of  Ithaca,  with  an 
acropolis,  containing  the  palace  of  Odysseus  (the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  called  by  the  islanders  the  castle  of  St.  Pene- 

c  lope).  In  front  of  the  isthmus  was  the  port  of  Rhei- 
thron.  b.  Cephallenia;  in  Homer  Samos, or  Same  (now 
Cephalonia),  with  the  city  of  Same.  c.  Zakynthus  (now 
Zante),  with  its  single  city  Zakynthus.  4.  The  Teleboides, 
or  islands  of  the  Taphians,  the  largest  of  which,  called 
Taphos,  lay  between  Leucadia  and  the  continent.  5. 
Sphacteria  (or  Sphagia),  opposite  Pylus.  6.  Cythera  (now 
Cerigo),  at  the  entrance  of  the  Laconic  gulf.  City  of  the 
same  name,  with  a  temple  of  Aphrodite  Cytherea. 
II.  IN  THE  ^EGEAN  SEA. 

229  a.  In  the  western  part — aa.  in  the  Saronic  gulf.      1. 
DCalauria;  temple  of  Poseidon,  with  an  asylum,  where 

Demosthenes  died.  2.  ^Egina.  The  ^Eginetan  sculptures 
(from  the  temple  of  Zeus  Panhellenios),  discovered  in 
1811,  now  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich.  3.  Sal  amis,  or 
Salamin,  taken  from  the  Megarians  by  Solon  (battle  in 
480).  lib.  In  the  JEgeansea.  Eubrea  (now  Negroponte), 
probably  separated  from  the  continent  by  one  of  the  earth- 
quakes common  in  those  parts,  with  the  promontory  of 
Artemisium  (so  named  from  a  temple  of  Artemis — battle 
in  480),  and  the  cities  of — 1.  Chalcis  (now  Negroponte), 


229.    §52.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  113 

joined  to  the  continent  by  a  bridge  over  the  Euripus — a  (229) 
strong   fortress,    and   place   of  considerable   trade ;    the  A 
mother-state  of  Cumae  and  Rhegium.       2.  Eretria;  the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  transplanted  into  Asia  by  Datis. 

b.  In  the  northern  part — 1.  Lemnos.  Its  most  ancient 
inhabitants,  according  to  Homer,  were  the  Sintians,  who 
practised  piracy,  and  received  Hephaestus  [Vulcan]  when 
he  was  thrown  down  out  of  heaven.  2.  Samothrake,  or 
Samothrace.     3.  Thasos,   formerly  famous  for  its  gold 
mines. 

c.  In  the  eastern  part — 1.  Lesbos,  celebrated  for  its  B 
excellent  wine.     Cities. — a.  Mitylene  (also  Mytilene), 
renowned  for  the  contests  of  poets ;  many  of  whom  were 
natives  of  the  city  (Terpander,  Arion,  Alceeus,  Sappho). 
b.  Methymna,  which  remained  faithful  to  the  Athenians 
(428).  2.  The  A r gin  u see  (battle  in  406).  3.Chio«(now 
Skio),  famous  for  its  wine  ;  Capital,  Chios — minstrel-school 
of  the  Homerides.  4.  Samos,  with  its  capital  of  the  same 
name,  the  native  city  of  Pythagoras,  at  the  height  of  its 
reputation  and  power,  under  Polycrates  (532).  5.  Rhodus, 
renowned  for  its  nautical  enterprise  and  cultivation  of  the 
sciences.       In  the  port  of  the  city  of  Rhodes  stood  the 
brazen  colossus,  seventy  yards  in  height. 

d.  In   the   southern  part — aa.   the   twelve     Cydades ;  c 
among  which  the  most  important  were — 1.  Delos,  in  the 
centre,  the   birth-place  of  Apollo  and    Artemis   (on  the 
mountain  of  Cynthus).  Near  the  temple  of  Apollo  solemn 
games  were  celebrated  every  five  years.     2.  Naxos,  the 
largest  of  the  islands,  sacred  to  Dionysus — Ariadne.      3. 
Paros,  famous  for  its  white  marble — the  marble  chronicles. 
bb.  Greta  (now  Candia),  in  the  vicinity  of  three  quarters 
of  the  globe,  and  the  centre  of  a  much  frequented  sea, 
with  a  mountain  chain,  split  into  four  parts,  and  intersect- 
ing the  island.     Its  highest  peak  is  Mount  Ida  (7200  feet). 
The  island  was  inhabited  at  a  very  early  period  (thence  ID 
called  by  Homer  sxaio'/uTroyUe),  and  well  cultivated.   Capital 
city,  Cnossus,  the  residence  of  Minos,  with  its  labyrinth, 
built  by  Daedalus  (probably  nothing  more  than  the  ex- 
tensive and  partly  subterraneous  quarries  in  that  part  of 
the  island). 


114  EUROPE. GREECE.         [230.  §53. 

B.   HISTORY  OF   THE   GREEKS. 
FIRST  (MYTHICAL)  PERIOD. 

From  the  earliest  Notices  to  the  Migration  of 
the  Dorians,  B.  c.  1104. 

§  53.   The  earliest  Population  of  Greece. 

230      1.  ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. — The   most   ancient  in- 

A  habitants  of  Greece  seem  to  have  been  the  Pelasgi,  one 

of  the  most   numerous   clans  of  southern  Europe,  who 

spread  at  the  same  time  over  Italy,  Macedonia,  Thrace, 

and  even  over  a  part  of  Asia  Minor. 

They  had  already  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  civilization  (for  we 
read  of  them  as  the  founders  of  the  most  ancient  Grecian  states, 
Sicyon*and  Argos),  practised  agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
and  founded  cities,  with  strong  fortresses  (called  Larissa),  in  fertile 
valleys  (named  Argos),  manured  by  streams,  which  at  certain  seasons 
overflowed  their  banks.  Some  of  these  cities  (as  Argos,  Mycenae, 
Tiryns,  Orchomenus,  &c.)  were  surrounded  by  Cyclopian  walls.  The 
Pelasgi  had  also  an  oracle  of  Zeus  at  Dodona,  and  sent  out  colonies 
to  Asia  Minor,  Crete,  and  Italy. 

B  The  appellation  of  Hellenes  was  used  originally,  and 
even  in  the  days  of  Homer  (II.  ii.  684),  to  designate  the 
inhabitants  of  the  district  of  Hellas  in  Thessaly,  or  the 
Myrmidons;  the  names  of  Achsei,  Argfii  ['^^«7o«],  and 
Dana  i,  being  applied  to  the  people  collectively.  It  was  not 
until  after  the  time  of  Homer  that  Hell  en,1  the  son  of 
Deucalion,  was  mentioned  (first  by  Hesiod?)  as  the  founder 
of  the  Grecian  race,  and  of  its  principal  tribes — the  jEolians, 
Dorians,  Achaeans,  and  lonians— derived  from  his  sons 
jEolus  and  Dor  us,  and  his  grandsons  Achseus  and 
Ion.  Since  that  period  the  name  has  no  longer  been  re- 
stricted to  the  Myrmidons  of  Achilles,  but  applied  col- 
lectively to  the  whole  Greek  nation. 

1  Prometheus 


Deucalion  with  Pyrrha 
Helta 

jEolus         Dorus         Xuthus 


Ion         Achaeus. 


231,  232.  §  54.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  115 

2.  FOREIGN  IMMIGRATIONS,  as   early  as  the   sixteenth  231 
century,  B.  c.,  are  said  to  have  contributed  to  the  peopling  A 
and  cultivation  of  the  land. 

a.  CECROPS  is  said  to  have  planted  an  Egyptian  colony 
in  Attica,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  king  (Astaeus), 
to  whose  throne  he    succeeded.     He  built  the  Acropolis 
(Cecropia),  established  the  worship  of  Zeus  and  Athene, 
introduced  lawful  marriages  and  the  interment  of  the  dead, 
and  divided  the  country  into  twelve  demi. 

b.  CADMUS,  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Sidon,  being  sent  B 
(according  to  the  legend)  by  his  father  in  search  of  his 
sister  Europa,  who  had  been  carried  off  by  Zeus  (a  myth 
expressing  the  migration  of  the  Phoenicians  into  Europe), 
arrived  in  Bceotia  with  a  band  of  colonists,  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Cadmea  in  Thebes,  and  taught  the  natives 
the  Phoenician  alphabet,  metallurgy,  and  the  worship  of 
Dionysus  [Bacchus], 

c.  DANAUS,  with  his  fifty  daughters,  migrated,  it  is  said, 
from  Chem,  in  Upper  Egypt,  to  Argos,  where  he  was  called 
to  the  throne.       The  introduction  of  the  Thesmophoria, 
and  the  worship  of  Athene  and  Aphrodite  [Minerva  and 
Venus],  are  ascribed  to  this  monarch. 

The  fifty  sons  of  his  brother  JEgyptus,  who  followed  him,  and  ob-  c 
tained  his  daughters  in  marriage,  were  all  murdered  by  their  wives ; 
with  the  exception  of  Lynceus,  who  was  spared  by  Hypermnestra, 
and  having  slain  his  father-in-law,  became  king  of  Argos.  The 
daughters  of  Danaus  were  condemned  to  draw  water  for  ever  in  the 
infernal  regions. 

d.  PELOPS,  about  the  year  1320  (his  father  Tantalus, 
king  of  Sipylus,  having  been  expelled  by  the  Troes),  came 
from  Phrygia,  and  made  himself  master  of  Pisatis  and 
Arcadia.     His   sons   extended   their  dominion   over   the 
greater  part  of  Peloponnesus. 


§  54.  Myths  concerning  the  Migrations  of  the  Hellenic 

Tribes,  « 

(between  B.  c.  1500  and  1300.) 

Deucalion,  the  son  of  Prometheus,  of  the  race  of  those  232 
Titans  who  fought  against  the  gods,  landed,  after  the  gen-  D 
eral  deluge,  on  one  of  the  summits  of  Parnassus,  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  wife  Pyrrha,  created  a  new  race  of 
men  by  throwing  stones  (A«e) .     Hence  the  word  l&oi,  people. 


116  EUROPE. GREECE.  [233.    §55. 

(232)  With  these  followers  he  migrated  to  Phthiotis,  where  he 

A  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  son  Hell  en,  and  he 

by  his  eldest  son  jEolus.     From  Phthiotis  the  ^Eolians 

spread  themselves,  under  the  command  of  his  successors, 

over  Thessaly  more  especially,  and  the  western  portion  of 

central  Greece  (jEtolia,  Acarnania,  Phocis,  and  Locris),  as 

well  as  over  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus  (Elis,  Corinth, 

•    Messenia,)  and  became  amalgamated  with  the  aboriginal 

inhabitants  of  those  countries. 

B  DORUS  expelled  the  Dryopes  of  Mount  (Eta,  and  founded 
the  Doric  Tetrapolis.  Another  division  of  the  Dorians 
migrated  to  the  island  of  Crete,  which  received  a  Doric 
constitution  through  their  king  Minos. 

XUTHUS,  the  youngest  son  of  Hellen,  went  into  Attica, 
where  king  Erechtheus  gave  him  his  daughter  Creusa,  as  a 
reward  for  military  services.  By  her  he  had  two  sons, 
ION  and  ACILEUS.  From  Ion's  four  sons  the  legend  de- 
rives the  division  of  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  into  four 
phylae,  according  to  their  mode  of  life,  viz.,  the  Hopletes 
(warriors),  Teleontes,  or  Geleontes  (peasants  who  paid 
rent?),  Ergadeis  (handicraftsmen),  and  Agikoreis  (goat- 
herds). 

C  Xanthus,  being  expelled  by  the  sons  of  Erechtheus,  went  to  jEgia- 
los,  which  was  named  Ionia  (afterwards  Achaia),  after  his  eldest  son, 
who  remained  behind  in  that  country  ;  whilst  the  younger,  Achaeus, 
proceeded  into  Thessaly,  and  took  possession  of  his  ancestral  king- 
dom of  Phthiotis,  whence  the  Achaeans,  under  the  command  of  his 
sons,  returned  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  spread  themselves  over  Argo- 
lis  and  L  iconia. 

§  55.   The  heroic  Age. 
(1300  to  1100.) 

233  The  wanderings  of  the  Hellenic  tribes  had  awakened  at 
D  a  very  early  period  a  passion  for  bold  and  extraordinary 
undertakings  ;  which  were  at  first  confined  to  their  native 
land,  but  soon  extended  into  foreign  countries.  At  first 
they  were  merely  the  enterprises  of  individual  heroes,  such 
as  Hercules,  Theseus,  &c. ;  but  at  a  later  period  expe- 
ditions were  undertaken  by  numbers,  who  united  for  that 
purpose.  In  this  manner  Greece  endured  a  period  of  the 
most  fearful  disorganization  and  supremacy  of  brute  force, 
the  natural  consequence  of  its  political  division  into  sepa- 
rate nations,  and  the  absence  of  popular  rights. 


234.    §55.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.  117 

Hercules  is  described  in  mythical  history  as  the  ideal  of  human  (233) 
perfection,  dedicated  to  the  service  of  its  fellow-creatures.  All  that  ^ 
is  excellent  in  him  is  of  divine  origin :  thus  he  consists  of  a  godlike 
and  a  human  nature  ;  is  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmene,  the  wife  of 
Amphitryon  ;  and  even  ia  the  cradle  manifests  his  superiority  over 
his  merely  human  brother  Iphicles  by  strangling  a  couple  of  serpents. 
As  a  youth  he  is  tempted  (fable  of  Hercules  at  the  place  where  the 
roads  divide),  and  overcomes  the  temptation.  He  is  persecuted  during 
the  whole  of  his  life  by  the  relentless  malice  of  Here  [Juno],  but  pro- 
tected by  Pallas.  His  enemy  Here  avails  herself  of  the  assistance 
of  Eurystheus,  at  whose  command  Hercules  undertakes  his  twelve 
labors;  which,  in  accordance  with  the  object  of  the  myth,  consist 
in  the  destruction  of  noxious  and  violent  animals  (the  Nemean  lion, 
the  Lernaean  hydra,  the  Erymanthian  boar,  the  hind  of  Artemis,  the 
Stymphalian  birds,  the  Cretan  bull,  the  horses  of  Diomedes  in 
Thracia),  or  in  the  acquisition  of  treasures  belonging  to  foreign 
lands  (the  zone  of  the  queen  of  the  Amazons,  the  cows  of  the  three- 
headed  Geryon,  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides),  or,  most  of  all, 
in  superhuman  exertions  (purification  of  the  Augean  stable).  The  B 
list  of  his  toils  closes  with  his  triumphant  return  from  the  lower 
world,  bringing  with  him  the  three-headed  dog  Cerberus.  But  to 
render  the  story  fully  instructive,  the  poet  speaks  also  of  his  mad- 
ness, and  of  his  love  for  the  Lydian  queen  Omphale  ;  and,  in  due 
course,  of  his  return  to  the  path  of  virtue.  The  myth  concludes 
with  a  magnificent  description  of  the  hero's  self-immolation  on  a 
funeral  pile,  and  his  assumption  into  heaven,  where  he  is  reconciled 
to  Here,  and  marries  her  daughter  Hebe. 

Theseus,  son  of  the  Athenian  king  ^Egeus,  appears  also  in  c 
mythical  history  as  a  benefactor  to  the  human  race,  especially  in 
his  native  country.  He  slays  robbers,  relieves  Athens  from  the  neces- 
sity of  sending  to  Crete  an  annual  tribute  of  seven  boys  and  seven 
virgins,  by  putting  the  Minotaur  to  death  in  the  Cretan  labyrinth 
(with  the  assistance  of  Ariadne),  and  fights  with  the  Amazons  and 
Centaurs.  He,  as  well  as  Hercules,  is  under  the  protection  of  a 
deity,  Poseidon  (whence  he  is  said  to  be  his  son,  and  a  native  of 
Troezene,  the  city  of  Poseidon).  By  the  aid  of  his  patron,  he  returns 
safely  from  Crete  and  from  the  lower  world,  which  he  had  visited  in 
company  with  his  friend  Peirithous,  for  the  purpose  of  abducting 
Persephone.  He  puts  to  death  his  son  Hippolytus,  who  had  been 
accused  by  his  step-mother  Phredra  of  an  attempt  to  dishonor  her. 
For  his  establishment  of  a  constitution  in  Attica,  see  §  61. 


MYTHS  CONCERNING    EXPEDITIONS   UNDERTAKEN   BY  THE 
GEEEKS  CONJOINTLY. 

1.    THE   ARGONAUTIC    EXPEDITION. — Phrixus,   son   of 234 
Athamas,  king  of  Orchomenus,  flying  with  his  sister  Helle  D 
from  the  persecutions  of  his  step- mother  Ino,  attempted  to 
cross  the  sea  to  Colchis  on  the  back  of  a  ram,  with  a 
golden  fleece.     Helle,  being  unable  to  keep  her  seat,  was 


118  EUROPE. GREECE.      [235—237.    §  55. 

(234)  drowned  in  the  waters  of  the  strait  called  from  her  the 

A  Hellespont ;  but  Phrixus,  having  landed  safely  on  the 
shores  of  Colchis,  offered  up  the  ram  in  sacrifice,  and  pre- 
sented its  fleece  to  king  uEetes,  who  placed  it  in  the  sacred 
grove  of  Ares,  under  the  guardianship  of  a  dragon.  To 
recover  this  fleece,  Jason,  son  of  the  king  of  lolchus, 
with  the  most  renowned  heroes  of  his  time — such  as  Her- 
cules, Theseus,  and  his  friend  Peirithous,  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux, the  minstrel  Orpheus,  and  the  fathers  of  the  heroes 
who  fought  before  Troy  (Peleus,  Telamon,  Olleus,  Neleus, 
and  Menoetius) — embarked  on  board  the  ship  Argo,  and, 
after  various  adventures,  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pha- 
sis,  and  effected  his  purpose  by  the  aid  of  Medea,  daughter 
of  jEetes,  whom  he  carried  off  into  Europe. 
235  2.  THE  WAR  OF  THE  SEVEN  CHIEFS  AGAINST  THEBES. — 

B  In  consequence  of  an  oracle,  Laius,  king  of  Thebes,  had 
caused  (Edipus,  his  son  by  Jocasta,  to  be  exposed  on 
Mount  Cithaeron ;  whence  he  was  rescued,  and  brought 
up  by  Periboea,  queen  of  Corinth.  (Edipus  inadvertently 
slays  his  father,  unriddles  the  enigma  of  the  Sphinx,  mar- 

c  ries  his  mother,  and  becomes  king  of  Thebes.  On  discov- 
ering his  twofold  crime,  he  puts  out  his  own  eyes,  and, 
guarded  by  his  daughter  Antigdne,  wanders  in  the  guise 
of  a  beggar  to  Colonos,  in  Attica,  where  he  casts  himself 
down  as  a  suppliant  before  the  altar  of  the  furies,  is  pro- 
tected by  Theseus,  and  soon  afterwards  dies.  Jocasta  falls 
by  her  own  hand.  Their  twin  sons  E  t  e  6  c  1  e  s  and  P  o  1  y- 
nlces  dispute  the  succession  to  the  throne;  and  Poly- 
nices  being  expelled  from  the  city,  persuades  six  heroes 
(Adrastus,  Tydeus,  Amphiaraus,  Capaneus,  Hippomedon, 
and  Parthenopseus)  to  join  him  in  an  expedition  against 

D  Thebes.  Both  the  brothers  are  slain,  and  of  the  other 
leaders  inly  Adrastus  escapes.  After  the  death  of  Ete6- 
cles,  the  guardianship  of  his  infant  son  Laodamas  is  under- 
taken by  Creon,  the  brother  of  Jocasta  and  uncle  of  the 
deceased  princes. 

230  3.  WAR  OF  THE  EriodNi. — Ten  years  after  these  events, 
Thebes  was  again  besieged  by  the  sons  of  the  fallen  heroes, 
who  carried  the  city  by  storm,  and  placed  Thersander,  the 
son  of  Polynices,  on  the  throne. 

237  4.  WAR  AGAINST  TROY  (B.  c.  1194-1184).— The  angr> 
feeling  which  had  long  existed  between  the  kings  of  Troy 


238.    §55.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  119 

and  the  race  of  Pelops,  in  consequence  of  the  expulsion  of  (237) 
Pelops  by  the  Trojan  king  Dardanus,  was  brought  to  a  A 
crisis  by  the  abduction  of  Helena,  wife  of  Menelaus,  king 
of  Sparta,  by  Paris,  one  of  the  sons  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy. 
At  the  instigation  of  Menelaus  and  his  brother  Agamem- 
non, the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Greece,  an  expedition 
against  Troy  is  undertaken  by  most  of  the  Grecian  princes, 
viz. — Nestor  of  Pylus,  Odysseus  of  Ithaca,  Achilles,  chief- 
tain of  the  Myrmidons  in  Thessaly,  Diomedes  of  Argos, 
the  two  Ajaxes  (the  one  the  son  of  Telamon  of  Salamis, 
the  other  the  son  of  Oileus,  and  leader  of  the  Locrians), 
Thersander  of  Thebes,  Idomeneus  of  Crete,  &c.  Whilst  B 
the  Grecian  fleet,  consisting  of  1186  vessels  with  100,000 
men  on  board,  was  riding  at  anchor  in  the  port  of  Aulis, 
Artemis  [Diana],  who  was  angry  with  Agamemnon  for 
having  slain  a  fawn,  sent  a  calm,  which  continued  until 
the  king,  by  the  advice  of  Calchas,  consented  to  offer  up 
his  daughter  Iphigenia  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  offended  god- 
dess. Artemis,  nevertheless,  released  the  victim,  and  con- 
veyed her  to  Tauris.  After  a  siege  of  ten  years  the  city 
was  taken  (myth  of  the  wooden  horse,  constructed  by 
Epeus),  and  burnt. — Migration  of  JEneas  to  Italy. 

MODE  OF  WARFARE. — Their  armies  were  composed  entirely  of  C 
infantry  and  war-chariots,  without  cavalry. — Duels  or  single  combats 
of  the  heroes. — The  Greek  camp  protected  by  walls  and  ditches. — 
Achilles,  enraged  at  the  abduction  of  Brisels  by  Agamemnon,  refuses 
to  take  any  part  in  the  war,  until  he  resumes  his  weapons  to  avenge 
the  death  of  his  friend  Patroclus,  and  kills  Hector.  Achilles  himself 
also  slain. 

FATE  OF  THE  GRECIAN  PRINCES  AFTER  THEIR  RETURN. —  238 
1.  AGAMEMNON  was  murdered  by  his  wife  Clytemnestra, 
and  her  paramour  ^Egisthus ;  both  of  whom  were  after- 
wards slain  by  Orestes,  the  son  of  Agamemnon,  with  the 
assistance  of  his  friend  Pylades.  Orestes,  who  was  per-  D 
secuted  for  a  long  time  by  the  furies,  on  account  of  his 
matricide,  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Argos  and  Mycenae, 
and,  as  son-in-law  of  Menelaus,  became  also  king  of  Sparta. 
His  son  Tisamenus  was  expelled  by  the  Dorians  (see  p. 
121,  A).  2.  MENELAUS,  accompanied  by  Helena,  wan- 
dered for  eight  years  about  the  coasts  of  Cyprus,  Phoe- 
nicia, &c.  3.  DIOMEDES,  finding  his  wife  ./Egialea  mar- 
ried again,  quitted  Argos,  and  fled  to  Italy.  4.  A  variety 
of  adventures  were  experienced  by  ODYSSEUS  [  Ulysses]. 


120  EUROPE. GREECE.        [239.  §56. 

(238)  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  HEROIC  AGE  was  hereditary 
A  monarchy.  The  kings,  who  were  supposed  to  be  allied  to 
the  gods  ((«x  di  Jibs  ftuadf^ — thence  called  by  Homer 
fapwftMQ  diojQFyifs,  d/oi,)  were  judges,  commanders,  and 
the  representatives  of  their  people  in  offering  public  sacri- 
fices. Their  revenue  consisted  of  an  estate  (TC'/IWOS),  a 
larger  share  of  the  booty  and  victims  offered  in  sacrifice, 
and  voluntary  gifts  (ytQara,  d&^«).  As  counsellors  of  the 
kings,  we  find  individual  nobles,  sometimes  bearing  the 
title  of  princes  and  leaders  (r^To^cs  itdg  psdovitg),  some- 
times of  elders  (ytgovrv;).  There  were  also  assemblies 
(apodal)  of  the  people  (df^o?),  who  were,  however,  called 
together,  not  to  express  any  opinion,  but  simply  to  decide. 

B  In  many  of  the  Grecian  states  the  king  seems  to  have  been  merely 
the  first  man  among  the  nobles.  Thus  Attica  was  divided  by  Theseus 
into  twelve  districts,  each  under  a  separate  dynasty  ;  the  twelve  rulers 
being  presided  over  by  the  king.  Similar  constitutions,  according  to 
Homer,  existed  in  Scheria  and  Ithaca.  These  princes  are  also  called 
/?«a«Ar)cj,  and  perform  ail  those  official  duties  which  are  not  necessa- 
rily (like  the  command-in -chief  of  the  army)  intrusted  to  one  person. 
As  these  chiefs  gradually  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  sovereign,  the 
supreme  monarchical  power  came  into  their  hands,  and  hence  arose 
aristocratic  constitutions. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 
FROM  TEE  MIGRATION  OF  THE  DORIANS  TO  THE  PERSIAN 

WAR,  1104-500. 

§  56.    The  Migration  of  the  Dorians,  or  Heracllda. 
(1104.) 

239  Some  fifty  years  after  the  Trojan  war  the  Thessa. 
clians,  a  branch  of  the  Thesprotians,  wandered  from 
Epirus  to  the  valley  of  the  Peneus,  and  gave  the  name  of 
Thessaly  to  the  district  which  had  been  hitherto  called 
Pelasgicon.  The  ancient  inhabitants  (^Eolians)  either 
became  serfs  (nwiaiai),  or  went  into  exile,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Boeotians,  who  conquered  the  country  named  from 
them  Boeotia  ;  the  aborigines  of  which  (as  the  Minyans  in 
Orchomenus,  the  Cadmeans  in  Thebes,  the  Thracians,  &c.) 
scattered  themselves  over  the  neighboring  states,  and 
founded  several  colonies.  From  this  period  we  find  no 
further  mention  of  them  in  history. 

THE    CONQUEST  OF   PELOPONNESUS  BY  THE  DORIANS 


240.    §57.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  121 

is  represented  in  the  myth  as  having  been  undertaken  for  (239) 
the  purpose  of  establishing  the  ancient  hereditary  claims  A 
of  the  Heraclldae.  Amphitryon,  we  are  told,  the  father  of 
Hercules,  was  deposed  from  the  throne  of  Tiryns  by 
Sthenelus,  king  of  Mycence.  The  endeavors  of  his  pos- 
terity to  recover  their  inheritance  were  for  a  long  time 
ineffectual ;  but,  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  three 
of  the  descendants  of  Hercules  (TEMENUS,  CRESPHONTES, 
and  ARISTODEMUS),  at  the  head  of  the  DORIANS,  who  had 
hitherto  dwelt  between  (Eta  and  Parnassus  (see  §  54), 
and  accompanied  by  the  ^Etolians  under  Oxylus,  crossed 
the  Corinthian  gulf  near  Naupactus,  overthrew  the  Achse- 
ans  under  Tisamenus,  the  son  of  Orestes  (who  resided  at 
Mycenae,  and  thence  ruled  the  districts  of  Laconia,  Argos, 
and  Messenia),  and  divided  the  conquered  lands  of  the 
Atridae.  Temenus  received  Argolis  for  his  portion,  Cres-  B 
phontes  Messenia ;  PROCLES  and  EURYSTHENES,  the  sons 
of  Aristodemus  (who  had  been  struck  dead  by  lightning), 
obtained  Laconia,  and  the  ^Etolians  Elis.  At  a  later  period 
Doric  kingdoms  were  also  founded  in  Sicyon,  Corinth, 
Megaris,  &c.  Attica  lost  Megaris,  and  only  retained  her 
independence  through  the  magnanimous  self-sacrifice  of 
Codrus,  the  last  Athenian  king,  1068.  Thus  much  seems 
to  be  historically  certain,  that  about  the  year  B.  c.  1100, 
Dorians,  under  various  leaders,  after  a  great  battle,  settled 
in  Peloponnesus,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  peninsula ;  not  all  at  once,  but  gra- 
dually, and  after  a  long  and  severe  struggle.  The  Area-  c 
dians  alone  continued  to  occupy  their  ancient  habitations. 
Of  the  Achseans  some  were  subdued,  and  others  took  pos- 
session of  the  northern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  inha- 
bited by  the  lonians,  who  retired  before  the  invaders,  and 
took  refuge  in  Attica,  the  islands,  and  Asia  Minor. 


§  57.     The  Greek  Colonies  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  movement  of  the  Heraclidse  was  followed  by  the  240 
establishment  of  colonies  in  the  islands  and  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor,  partly  by  the  conquerors,  who  were  compelled  to 
emigrate  on  account  of  the  superabundant  population,  and 
partly  by  the  vanquished  aborigines. 

1.  AEOLIAN  COLONIES. — After  losing  the  sovereignty  of 


122  EUROPE. GREECE.       [241 243.    §58. 

(240)  the  Peloponnesus,  the  expelled  Achseans  (under  the  com- 
A  mand  of  Penthilus,  a  son  of  Orestes)  migrated,  in  com- 
pany with  the  Boeotian  ^Etolians,  to  Mysia  and  Lydia 
(hence  the  name  of  jEdlis),  where  they  founded  twelve 
cities,  or  states ;  among  which  the  most  important  were 
Cyme  and  Smyrna.  The  latter  was  taken  at  an  early 
period  of  its  history  by  the  lonians  (expelled  from  Co- 
lophon). At  the  same  time,  they  spread  over  Lesbos, 
where  they  founded  Mitylene  and  Methymna,  and  took 
possession  of  several  other  islands. 

241  2.    IONIAN  COLONIES. — The  same  lonians,  who,  when 
B  they  were  expelled  by  the  Achseans  from  the  northern 

coast  of  Peloponnesus,  had  fled  to  their  kinsmen  in  Attica, 
migrated  (under  the  younger  son  of  Codrus),  in  company 
with  the  remnants  of  other  Greek  clans,  to  the  Cyclades, 
Chios,  and  Samos,  as  well  as  to  the  southern  coast  of  Lydia 
and  to  the  north  of  Caria  (hence  the  name  Ionia),  where 
they  also  founded  twelve  cities.  Of  these  states,  which 
were  united  by  the  bond  of  a  common  sanctuary  (the 
Panionium  at  Mycale),  the  most  important  were — 1. 
c  Miletus;  which  founded  more  than  eighty  colonies, 
principally  on  the  shores  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus  and 
the  Propontis  (see  §  62).  2.  Ephesus,  with  the  famous 
temple  of  Artemis,  which  was  burnt  by  Herostratus  (359), 
and  restored  on  a  more  magnificent  scale.  3.  P  hoc  SB  a, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  emigrated  to  Massilia  (compare 
§  55).  4.  Smyrna,  formerly  an  jEolian  city. 

242  3.  DORIAN  COLONIES. — Dorians,  from  different  cities  of 
D  Peloponnesus  and  from  Megara,  emigrated  to  the  islands 

of  Crete  (see  §  54),  Rhodes,  Thera,  and  southern  Caria 
(hence  Doris),  and  founded  a  confederacy  of  six  cities 
(the  Doric  Hexap6lis) ;  two  of  which,  Halicarnassus 
(the  birth-place  of  Herodotus  and  Dionysius),  and  C  nidus 
(battle  in  394),  were  on  the  main  land.  From  Thera  a 
colony  was  sent  out,  about  the  year  632,  to  Gyrene,  in 
Africa. 

§  58.  Origin  of  Republican  Constitutions. 

243  With  the  heroic  age  expired  also  the  absolute  sove- 
reignty of1  individuals,  partly  through  the  extinction  of 
royal  families,  and  partly  through  the  restrictions  imposed 
on  the  authority  of  the  crown,  or  the  violent  expulsion  of 


244.  §58.]         EUROPE. — GREECE.  123 

their  kings.  Instead  of  monarchical,  most  of  the  states  (243) 
adopted  aristocratic,  and  at  a  later  period  republican,  con-  A 
stitutions,  with  various  modifications ;  and  except  at  Sparta, 
where  two  kings,  a  Eurysthenid  and  a  Proclid(247,  D)  conti- 
nued to  reign,  the  monarchical  constitution  was  retained  only 
in  Argos,  and  that  under  considerable  restrictions,  until  the 
Persian  war.  Greece  was  split  into  almost  as  many  inde- 
pendent states  as  there  were  cities  with  a  territory  attached 
to  them,  only  a  few  districts,  such  as  Laconia,  Megaris, 
and  Attica,  forming  each  a  confederate  state  ;  although  in 
many,  perhaps  in  all  the  other  districts,  the  different  inde- 
pendent cities  were  united  by  a  league.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, which  existed  especially  in  Achaia,  each  city  re-  B 
tained  its  own  constitution,  or  sometimes  a  particular  city 
was  invested  with  the  Hegemony,  or  presidency  over  the 
others,  as  Thebes  over  the  states  of  Boeotia,  and  Sparta 
over  those  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

In  most  of  the  Grecian  states,  as  well  at  home  as  in  the 
colonies,  the  struggles  of  the  people  against  an  arrogant 
oligarchy  occasioned,  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries 
B.  c.,  the  establishment  of  TYRANTS,  as  they  were  called,  that 
is,  of  individuals  who  assumed  a  supreme  and  irresponsible 
authority,  which  they  endeavored  to  render  hereditary  in 
their  families.  In  those  states,  especially,  which  were  not 
exclusively  Dorian  (i.  e.  in  all  those  of  the  mother  country  (. 
except  Sparta  and  Argos),  the  establishment  of  this  kind  of 
tyranny  was  the  result  of  the  struggles  between  the  ancient 
inhabitants  and  the  Dorians ;  the  leaders  of  the  popular 
party,  in  their  resistance  to  aristocratic  oppression,  gene- 
rally retaining  their  power  ^fter  the  victory  was  gained, 
and  assuming  the  authority  and  name  of  Tyrants. 

The  most  numerous  changes  of  constitution  were  experienced  by  244 
Corinth,  where,  after  the  Doric  immigration,  the  sovereign  power  D 
was  at  first  in  the  hands  of  the  Heraclidae,  then  of  the  Bacchiadae, 
who  for  a  time  retained  the  monarchical  constitution,  but  subse- 
quently established  an  oligarchy  under  the  presidency  of  a  Prytaneus, 
elected  annually — (during  this  period  most  of  the  Corinthian  colonies 
were  founded,  such  as  Syracuse,  Corcyra,  Potidaea,  &c.) — then  a 
tyranny  was  established  in  the  person  of  Cypselus  (657),  who  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Periander,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece, 
and  he  by  his  nephew  Psammetichus,  until  the  expulsion  of  their 
tyrants  by  the  Corinthians  (584)  and  the  restoration  of  the  oligarchical 
tonstitution. 

There  were  two  institutions  which  served,  no  less  than 


124  EUROPE. GREECE.         [245.  §58. 

the  confederacies  of  cities  in  the  same  district,  to  unite  the 
little  independent  states  into  which  Greece  was  divided. 
245      1.  The  Amphictyoniae  (properly  Amphictioniae)  or 

A  unions  of  people  living  in  the  vicinity  of  a  sanctuary,  esta- 
blished for  the  purposes  of  mutual  security,  and  of  cele- 
brating their  festivals  in  common.  They  differed  from  the 
ordinary  confederacies,  in  not  being  directed  against  any 
third  power.  The  most  celebrated  was  the  DELPHIC  AM- 
PHICTYONIA,  originally  a  confederacy  of  Hellenic  tribes  in 
Thessaly,  who  acquired  new  settlements  in  their  wars  with 
the  Pelasgians.  The  term  was  subsequently  used  in  a  more 

B  extended  sense  to  express  a  union  of  the  several  nations  of 
Thessaly  and  central  Greece,  comprising  at  an  early  period 
twelve  districts  (with  their  colonies),  the  number  and  pri- 
vileges of  which  remained  unchanged  until  the  time  of 
Philip  II.  of  Macedonia.  The  reception  of  several  Pelas- 
gian  clans  into  the  confederacy,  naturally  altered  its  original 
character  of  a  defensive  alliance  against  the  Pelasgians,  and 
from  that  time  the  union  assumed  a  more  peaceful  form. 
To  the  Amphictyons  belonged  the  privilege  of  protecting 
the  Delphic  oracle  and  the  treasures  deposited  in  the 
temple,  of  arranging  the  festivals  and  providing  for  the 
security  of  pilgrims.  Through  this  connection  with  the 

c  Amphictyons  the  Delphic  oracle  obtained  such  an  influence, 
that  at  one  time  nothing  of  importance  was  undertaken 
without  its  command  or  sanction :  but  as  faith  in  its  pro- 
phetic powers  declined,  the  Amphictyonia  fell  also  into  dis- 
repute, and  was  superseded  by  the  Hegemonia,  first  of 
Sparta,  and  subsequently  of  Athens. 

From  this  period  the  duties  of.,the  confederacy  were  re- 
stricted to  the  protection  of  the  oracle,  and  the  s'uperinten- 
dence  of  the  Pythian  games,  until  the  Phocian  war,  when  it 
again  assumed  a  political  character.  So  far  was  it,  how- 

D  ever,  from  recovering  the  influence  which  it  had  possessed 
in  the  sacred  war  against  Crissa,  that  its  exertions  were 
now  of  little  avail,  except  to  increase  intestine  discord,  and 
hasten  the  downfall  of  Grecian  freedom. 


At  the  two  meetings,  which  were  held  annually,  in  the  Spring  at 
Delphi,  and  in  the  Autumn  near  Thermopylae  (at  Anthela),  the 
multitude  of  citizens  who  attended  from  the  cities  of  the  league  com- 
posed the  greater  assembly.  There  was  also  a  council  of  deputies, 
who,  besides  arranging  the  questions  to  be  brought  forward  for  dig- 


246.    §58.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.  125 

cussion  in  the  assembly^and  carrying  its  decisions  into  effect,  were  (245) 
charged  also  with  the  superintendence  of  the  sanctuaries  belonging  A 
to  the  league,  and  the  worship  connected  with  them  ;  and  more  par- 
ticularly with  the  management  of  the  Delphic  temple,  and  the  Pythian 
games. 

THE    CONGRESSES    (navriyi<Q(iii)   at    the    four    great  246 
National   Games,  which,  with  few  exceptions,  were 
open  to  all  Greeks,  and  to  them  exclusively. 

a.  The  Olympic,  the  most  renowned  of  all,  were  founded, 
according  to  the  legend,  by  Hercules,  and  after  a  long  in-  B 
terruption,  revived  by  Iphitus  of  Elis  (a  descendant  of 
Oxylus),  and  Lycurgus  of  Sparta  (300  years  after  the  de- 
struction of  Troy ;  consequently  in  884  ?).    It  would  seem, 
however,  that  what  is  called  their  revival,  was,  in  reality, 
the  first  establishment  of  these  games.     From  the  year 
B.  c.  778  (Olymp.  i.  1),  a  regular  record  was  kept  of  the 
conquerors,  and  from  that  date  until  A.  D.  392.    The  games 
at  the  commencement  of  the  first  year  in  each  Olympiad 
were  celebrated  at  Olympia,  in  honor  of  Zeus,  with  gym- 
nastic contests  and  horse-races,  during  a  general  amnesty, 
which  lasted  five  successive  days ;  the  ceremonial  being 
closed  by  sacrifices,  a  banquet,  and  a  grand  procession. 

The  gymnastic  combats  of  men  (at  a  later  period  of  boys  also) 
consisted,  at  first,  simply  of  races  in  the  stadium :  but  gradually  the  c 
programme  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  Pentathlon  (or  union 
of  five  exercises),  viz.,  leaping,  throwing  the  discus  or  javelin,  run- 
ning, and  wrestling  ;  and  the  Pancration,  or  union  of  wrestling  and 
boxing.  The  other  combats  consisted  of  races  on  horseback,  and  in 
chariots  drawn  by  two  or  four  horses.  The  presence  of  so  many 
Hellenes  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  difficulty,  in  those 
days,  of  making  any  general  announcement,  rendered  the  Olympic 
Panegyris  an  occasion  peculiarly  favorable  for  public  advertisements, 
and  the  exhibition  of  works  of  art.  The  victors  were  rewarded  on 
the  spot  with  crowns  of  wild  olive  branches,  and  statues  in  the  grove 
of  Altis,  and  still  more  substantially  on  their  return  to  their  own  cities ; 
at  Athens,  for  example,  with  a  triumphal  entry,  Proedria,  and  main- 
tenance for  life  in  the  Prytaneum. 

b.  The  Pythian,  in  honor  of  the  Pythian  Apollo,  were  D 
held  in  the  third  year  of  each  Olympiad,  on  the  plain  of 
Pytho  between  Delphi  and  Cirrha. 

c.  The  Nemean  were  celebrated  in  a  cypress-grove  near 
the  village  of  Nemea,  in  Argolis,  in  honor  of  Zeus  (in  the 
winter  of  the  second,  and  summer  of  the  fourth,  year  of 
each  Olympiad). 

d.  The  Isthmian,  in  the  grove  of  pines  on  the  Corin- 


126  EUROPE. GREECE.  [247.    §  59. 

A  thian  isthmus,  in  honor  of  Poseidon»(at  the  beginning  of 
the  first,  and  end  of  the  third  year  in  each  Olympiad). 

§  49.  Sparta. 

247  Laconia,  in  the  division  of  Peloponnesus,  having  fallen 
to  the  lot  of  Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  the  throne  of  Sparta 
was  thenceforth  always  occupied  by  two  kings,  a  Eurys- 
thenid  and  a  Proclid.  The  contest  with  the  Achseans, 
who  still  occupied  parts  of  the  country,  continued  for  about 
300  years,  and  even  in  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries, 
B.  c.,  we  find  that  Achaean  colonies  were  sent  out  from 
Lacedaemon.  Of  all  these  struggles  the  most  obstinate  was 

B  with  the  inhabitants  of  Helos,  who,  after  the  destruction  of 
their  city,  became  bondsmen  of  the  Spartans.1  Thus  the 
population  assumed  a  threefold  character,  viz.:  1.  The 
dominant  Dorians,  or  SPARTANS.  2.  The  PERICECI  ,  or  LA- 
CEDAEMONIANS, a  title  given  to  the  conquered  Achseans, 
who  enjoyed  personal  freedom,  and  retained  their  property 
in  the  land.  They  paid  taxes,  but  had  no  share  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  public  affairs.  3.  The  Helots,  or  bonds- 
men of  the  state,  who  were  the  inhabitants  of  places  for- 
merly stormed  by  the  Spartans.  Their  lands  were  forfeited 

c  to  the  conquerors,  whose  property  they  farmed,  paying 
them  a  proportion  of  the  annual  produce  by  way  of  rent. 
They  served  in  war,  either  as  attendants  on  their  masters, 
or  as  light-armed  soldiers  ;  but  were  considered  the  pro- 
perty of  the  state,  and  consequently  could  not  be  sold  out 
of  the  country,  or  put  to  death. 

LYCURGUS,  a  member  of  the  family  of  Procles,  and  guardi- 
an of  king  Charilaus,  was  compelled  by  the  opposite  party 
to  withdraw  from  Sparta ;  but  returned  about  the  year  880, 
after  having  visited  Crete,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt.  At  the 

D  request  of  his  fellow-citizens,  and  with  the  approbation  of  the 
Delphic  oracle,  Lycurgus  gave  his  native  city  a  constitution, 
partly  new,  but  for  the  most  part  merely  a  legal  confirmation 
of  ancient  practices,  recorded  by  oral  tradition  in  the  form 
of  proverbs  (^rpcu).  THE  TWO  HEREDITARY  KINGS  were 
retained.  They  presided  over  the  public  sacrifices,  and  in 
war  had  the  uncontrolled  command  of  the  army ;  but  in 

1  [The  term  Helot*  IB  much  more  probably  connected  with  JXeiV 
than  with  Helos  and  this  tale  of  its  capture,  which  was  probably 
invented  to  account  for  the  term.] 


248,249.  §59.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  127 

time  of  peace  were  distinguished  merely  by  the  privileges  (247) 
which  they  enjoyed  (a  dwelling,  estates,  perquisites  of  A 
beasts  offered  for  sacrifice,  and  skins,  booty,  precedence, 
a  double  portion  at  the  public  meals,  and  a  public  funeral). 
The  government  was  administered  by  a^f  yo  IKT/M,  consist- 
ing of  the  two  kings,  and  twenty-eight  men  who  had  reached, 
at  least,  their  sixtieth  year.  They  were  elected  by  the 
people  and  were  irresponsible.  The  duties  of  this  council 
were  to  propose  measures  to  the  general  assembly  of  the 
people,  discharge  the  highest  functions  of  government,  sit 
in  judgment  as  the  supreme  criminal  tribunal,  and  in 
conjunction  with  the  Ephors,  to  watch  over  public  morals. 

The  POPULAR  ASSEMBLY,  at  which  every  Spartan  above  248 
thirty  years  of  age  had  the  right  of  voting,  was  regularly  B 
assembled  every  full  moon  in  the  open  air,  and  decided  by 
acclamation  on  the  adoption  or  rejection  of  the  propositions 
successively  laid  before  it  by  the  Gerusia,  which  related 
principally  to  the  passing  or  repealing  of  laws,  the  choice 
of  public  officers,  war  and  peace.  It  is  uncertain,  whether 
Lycurgus  himself  introduced  the  five  EPHORI,  who  origi- 
nally, as  presidents  of  the  popular  assembly,  acted  the  part 
of  judges  in  civil  matters,  and,  at  a  later  period,  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  from  whom-they  were  taken,  formed 
a  standing  opposition  to  the  kings  and  Gerusia,  and  enjoyed 
almost  unlimited  power.  They  exercised  a  strict  control  c 
over  the  public  morals,  education,  and  the  behavior  of 
foreigners,  enforced  observance  of  the  laws,  conducted  all 
public  negotiations,  particularly  with  regard  to  foreign 
affairs  (the  axi'TM^1),  inquired  into  the  manner  in  which 
the  magistrates  performed  their  duties,  and  even  possessed 
the  power  of  arresting  the  kings.  To  the  legislation  of 
Lycurgus  is  ascribed  also  the  introduction  of  an  equal  par- 
tition of  the  land,  in  accordance  with  which  the  whole 
country  was  divided  into  39,000  inalienable  and  indivisible 
lots  or  properties,  9,000  greater,  of  which  each  Spartan 
family  (at  least  after  the  acquisition  of  Messenia)  possessed 
one,  and  30,000  smaller  for  the  Lacedaemonians ;  but  this 
arrangement  was  probably  subsequent  to  the  first  Mes- 
seninn  war. 

The  regulations  of  Lycunrns  with  rospoct  to  educ  a-  249 

1  [See  the  description  of  it  in  the  '  Handbook  of  Grecian  Antiqq.' 
(p.  139),  or  in  the  '  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiqq.'] 
7 


128  EUROPE. GREECE.         [250.  §  60. 

(249)  t  i  o  n  and  domestic  life  had  reference  principally  to  the 
"  A  qualification  of  every  free  citizen  for  military  service, 
and  the  subjection  of  all  private  interests  to  those  of  the 
state.  Every  new-born  child,  if  weakly  or  deformed,  was 
exposed  on  Mount  Taygetus,  the  strong  children  were 
brought  up  by  their  mothers  until  their  seventh  year,  and 
from  that  time,  until  the  age  of  thirty,  were  publicly  edu- 
cated in  troops  or  classes  (a^c'Aai  and  /5oi'«t)  instructed 
in  gymnastic  accomplishments,  music,  and  dancing,  and 
accustomed  to  practise  the  resources  and  endure  the  pri- 
B  vations  of  warfare.  That  the  citizen's  life  might  oe  perpe- 
tually that  of  the  soldier  in  his  camp,  exempt  from  household 
cares  and  occupations,  Lycurgus  instituted  public  meals 
(ffwalnu,  in  Lacedaemon  <pstdhiafm  the  black  broth),  in 
separate  messes  of  fifteen  persons,  and  required  the  greatest 
simplicity  in  dress  and  lodging.  For  the  removal  of  every 
temptation  to  avarice  or  foreign  luxury,  the  only  circulat- 
ing medium  allowed  was  an  iron  coinage  ;  and  commerce, 
travelling,  and  the  residence  of  foreigners  at  Sparta,  were 
strictly  prohibited.  The  chief  occupation  of  the  free  citizen 
was  the  practice  of  military  exercises,  in  which  all  persons 
between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  sixty  were  required  to 
join.  The  Periceci  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  trade 
and  manufactures,  whilst  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  all 
mechanical  labors  devolved  on  the  Helots. 

Lycurgus,  after  exacting  from  the  king,  the  senate,  and 
the  people,  an  oath  that  none  of  his  taws  should  be  changed 
during  his  absence,  quitted  the  city  and  never  returned. 

§  60.    The  two  first  Messenian  Wars. 
250      1.  FIRST  MESSENIAN  WAR  (743 — 724). 

C  LEGEND  CONCERNING  THE  CAUSE  OF  THE  WAR.'  Some  Spartan  vir- 
gins, who  had  come  to  worship  at  a  temple  of  Artemis  common  to 
both  Lacedaemonians  and  Messenians,  were  carried  off  by  Messenian 
youths,  and  the  Spartan  king  (TelSclus)  slain  in  an  attempt  to  re- 
lease them  ;  soon  after  this  outrage,  a  noble  Messenian  (Polychares), 
being  unable  to  obtain  satisfaction  from  the  Spartan  senate  for  the 
driving  away  of  his  cattle,  and  the  assassination  of  his  son,  (by  a 
Lacedaemonian  named  Eusephnus,)  avenged  himself  by  the  murder 
of  some  Spartans. 

Their  demand  that  the  murderer  should  be  delivered  up 

1  According  to  an  intimation  in  Tacit.  Annal.  iv.  43,  the  real  cause 
of  the  war  seems  to  have  been  a  dispute  respecting  the  boundaries  of 
the  two  states. 


251,  252.  §61]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  129 

to  them,  being  treated  with  contempt,  the  Spartans  at  once  (250; 
commenced  the  war,  by  making  several  incursions  into  the  A 
Messenian  territory.  Many  bloody,  but  indecisive,  battles 
were  fought.  The  Messenians  threw  themselves  into  the 
strong  fortress  of  IthOme,  and,  during  the  lifetime  of  their 
king,  Aristodemus,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Achaeans, 
Arcadians,  and  Sicyonians,  made  head  against  the  Spartans ; 
but  after  his  death,  Ithome  was  taken,  and  many  of  the 
Messenians  escaped  into  Argos  and  Arcadia,  whilst  those 
who  remained  became  tributary  to  the  Spartans,  under  the 
name  of  Perioeci. 

The  despised  Parthenii  (children  of  slaves?),  as  they  were  called, 
being  detected  in  a  conspiracy  with  the  Helots,  emigrated  to  Italy, 
where  they  founded  the  city,  of  Tarentum  (708). 

2.  SECOND  MESSENIAN  WAR  (685—668).  The  hard  251 
conditions  on  which  peace  had  been  granted  to  the  Messe-  B 
nians,  and  their  contemptuous  treatment  by  the  Spartans, 
roused  the  next  generation  to  insurrection,  in  which  they 
were  assisted  not  only  by  their  former  allies,  but  also  by 
the  Eleans.  Under  the  command  of  the  Heraclid  Aristo- 
menes, the  Messenians  defended  themselves  against  the 
Spartans  (who  were  led  by  the  lame  Athenian  minstrel 
Tyrtaeus),  and  for  eleven  years  kept  possession  of  the  for- 
tress of  Ira,  from  which  successful  incursions  were  often 
made  into  the  Spartan  territory.  In  one  of  these  sallies  c 
Aristomenes  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  but  escaped  from 
his  prison  (the  Ceeadas)  by  following,  it  is  said,  the  footsteps 
of  a  fox  (?),  and  returned  to  Ira.  At  length,  through  the 
treachery  of  a  Spartan  deserter,  the  enemy  were  admitted 
during  a  tempestuous  night ;  and  the  Messenians,  after 
bravely  contesting  the  possession  of  the  city  for  three  days 
and  nights,  were  at  last  compelled  to  abandon  their  post. 
Aristomenes,  placing  the  women  and  children  in  the  centre 
of  the  army,  fought  his  way  into  Arcadia,  but  his  plan  of 
surprising  Sparta  from  this  point  was  frustrated  through  the 
treachery  of  the  Arcadian  king,  Aristocrates.  Most  of  the 
Messenians  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where  they  took  possession 
of  Zancle,  which  thenceforth  was  called  Messana.  The 
few  who  remained  became  Helots. 

§  61.  Athens. 

1.  PERIOD  OF  THE  KINGS  to  the  year  1068.     The  whole  252 
catalogue  of  Athenian  sovereigns  until  the  reign  of  Theseus  D 


130  EUROPE. — GREECE.       [253 — 255.    §61. 

(252)  is  a  mere  unconnected  tissue  of  mythical  personages,  inter- 
A  woven  with  personifications  of  local  events.  The  histo- 
rical period  of  Athens  begins  with  Theseus,  who  collected 
into  one  city  the  scattered  communities  of  Attica,  and  in 
addition  to  the  old  partition  of  the  country  into  four  Phylae, 
and  twelve  Phratriae,  introduced  a  fresh  division  (based  on 
the  condition  and  employments  of  the  people)  into 
tvxaryldui  (nobles),  ytayioyoi  (husbandmen),  and  drjfiiovg- 
yol  (handicraftsmen).  The  last  sovereign  of  the  line  of 
Theseus  lost  his  crown  to  Melanthus,  a  descendant  of 
Nestor,  who,  flying  from  Pylos,  arrived  in  Attica,  whilst 
that  country  was  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  Bceotia  con- 
cerning their  boundaries,  and  accepted  a  challenge  to  meet 
the  king  of  Bceotia  in  single  combat,  which  had  been  de- 
B  clined  by  the  Athenian  monarch.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Codrus,  after  whose  voluntary  death  (239)  the 
contest  of  his  two  sons  for  the  throne  afforded  the  Eupa- 
tridae  an  opportunity  of  entirely  abolishing  the  kingly  office. 
Neleus,  disgusted  at  the  preference  shown  to  his  brother, 
emigrated  to  Asia  Minor,  as  leader  of  the  lonians  ;  whilst 
Medon  and  his  descendants  became  mere  chief  magistrates, 
responsible  for  their  administration  to  the  aristocracy,  the 
title  of  king  being  at  the  same  time  exchanged  for  thai 
of  ARCHON. 

253  2.  ARCHONS  FOR  LIFE  (1068  to  752),  of  the  family  of 
c  Codrus.      They  differed  from  the  kings  merely  in  name, 

and  in  being  responsible  for  their  administration. 

254  3.    ARCHONS  FOR  TEN  YEARS  (752—682).     Only  the 
four  first  were  of  the  family  of  Codrus:    afterwards  the 
Archonship  was  open  to  all  Eupatrids7 

255  4.  NINE  JOINT  ARCHONS  ANNUALLY  ELECTED  (from  the 
year  682).     The  first  of  these,  who  had  the  title  of  Epony- 
mus,  because  the  year  was  named  after  him,  was  originally 
at  the  head  of  the  civil   administration,  the  second,  or 
Basileus,  was  the  chief-priest,  and  the  third,  or  Polcmar- 

D  chus,  commanded  the  army  in  time  of  war.  The  remain- 
ing six,  who  were  called  Thesmothe'tae,  were  charged  with 
the  administration  of  criminal  justice. 

As  the  Archons  were  chosen  only  from  the  Eupatrids, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  statute  law,  were  guilty  of  great 
partiality  and  oppression  in  the  discharge  of  their  office,  a 
system  of  written  laws  was  loudly  called  for  by  the  dis- 


256,257.  §61.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  131 

satisfied  plebeians.     In  the  year  624  one  of  the  Archons,  (255) 
named  Draco  [z/e«xwv],  was  commissioned  to  draw  up  such  A 
a  code,  but  the  extreme  severity  of  his  dwfiol  only  increas- 
ed the  discontent  of  the  people.      Draco  fled  to  ./Egina, 
where  he  died,  and  most  of  his  laws  fell  into  disuse. 

THE  INSURRECTION  OF  CvLON  (612).  At  the  head  of  the  malcon-  256 
tents  was  one  CylOn,  who  attempted  to  make  himself  absolute  at 
Athens.  With  some  troops  belonging  to  his  father-in-law,  (Thea- 
genes,  tyrant  of  Megara),  he  seized  on  the  Acropolis,  but  was  soon 
expelled  by  the  Archon  Megacles  of  the  family  of  Alcmaeonidae),  at 
whose  instigation  the  partisans  of  Cylon,  who  had  fled  for  refuge  to 
the  altar  of  the  Eumenides,  were  all  put  to  death.  The  Alcmaeonidae, 
laden  with  a  curse  on  account  of  this  murder,  were  compelled,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Solon,  to  quit  the  city,  which  was  purified  from  the 
pollution  by  Epimenides  of  Crete. 

In  order  to  remove  the  misunderstanding  between  the  257 
Eupatrids  and  the  Demos  [or  people],  two  measures  were  B 
proposed  by  Solon,  a  descendant  of  Codrus,  who  was  al- 
ready well  known  to  the  people.  1.  The  recovery  of  Sala- 
mis. — This  island  had  been  lost  to  the  Megarians,  and  all 
attempts  to  retake  it  having  proved  ineffectual,  it  was 
forbidden  on  pain  of  death  to  propose  an  expedition  for 
that  purpose.  Solon,  however,  by  means  of  an  elegy,  c 
delivered  under  the  influence,  as  he  pretended,  of  insanity, 
prevailed  on  the  Athenians  to  renew  the  war.  He  himself 
acted  as  their  leader,  and  the  Megarians  having  been  in- 
veigled into  Attica,  were  put  to  death  by  soldiers  disguised 
as  women.  The  settlement  of  the  dispute  having  been 
subsequently  referred  to  the  Lacedaemonians,  Solon  se- 
cured the  possession  of  the  island  to  his  countrymen  by 
interpolating  a  verse  in  the  Iliad  (ii.  558).  2.  The  Jlrst 
Sacred  War. — The  Crisaeans  had  not  only  extorted  heavy 
payments  from  the  merchants  and  pilgrims  who  passed 
through  their  territory  on  the  road  to  Delphi,  but  had  even 
plundered  the  temple  of  Apollo,  and  put  to  death  the  foreign- 
ers who  happened  to  be  present.  Solon  having  induced  the  D 
Amphictyons  to  make  war  on  Crisa  [Kqiaa  rather  than 
A'ptWa]  ;  the  city  was  demolished,  its  inhabitants  sold  into 
slavery,  and  its  territory,  in  obedience  to  an  injunction  of  the 
oracle,  consecrated  to  the  Pythian  Apollo.  Meanwhile,  three 
factions  had  sprung  up  in  Attica :  1 .  The  Eupatrids,  who 
possessed  rich  estates  on  the  plains  of  Attica  (ol  ex  TOU 
mdlov),  and  advocated  a  rigid  oligarchy.  2.  The  proprietors 
in  the  mountainous  districts,  who  were  poor  and  in  debt ; 


132  EUROPE. GREECE.       [258—260.    §61. 

(257)  these  wished  to  establish  a  democracy.  3.  The  Demiurgi 
A  on  the  coast  (Tra^oAoi),  who  desired  a  mixed  form  of  govern- 
ment. With  the  view  of  reconciling  these  various  factions, 
the  sovereign  authority  was  offered  to  Solon,  and  on  his 
refusal  to  accept  the  crown,  he  was  chosen  Archon 
Eponymus  (in  594),  and  commissioned  to  draw  up  a  new 
code  of  laws. 

258  SOLON'S  LEGISLATION. 

The  measures  adopted  by  Solon  for  meeting  the  present 
emergency  and  reconciling  the  contending  parties  were : 
1.  The  repeal  of  all  Draco's  laws  except  those  against 
murder.  2.  The  Seisactheia,  as  it  was  called  [i.  e.  the 
shaking  off"  of  burdens~\,by  which  claims  were  rendered  more 
moderate,  and  the  means  of  liquidating  debts  facilitated  by 
raising  the  standard  of  the  coinage  (about  fW)- l  At  the  same 
time  Solon  abolished  the  ancient  law  of  arrest  for  debt,  and 
restored  their  civil  rights  to  all  citizens  (except  actual 
felons),  who  had  been  pronounced  UT//UOI  [Antiqq.  139]. 

259  The  persons  excluded  from  civil  rights  were  :   1.  The  piroiKoi  [resi- 
B. dent-aliens],  for  the  most  part  foreigners,  who  were  permitted  by  the 

state  to  exercise  their  trades  at  Athens  in  consideration  of  a  fixed  pay- 
ment and  an  undertaking  to  bear  their  share  of  all  the  public  burdens 
(even  military  service).  In  all  legal  proceedings  they  were  repre- 
sented by  a  citizen  as  their  advocate  or  patron  (Tpo<rrdr^j).  2. 
The  slaves  (purchased  foreigners  and  their  descendants),  whose  lives 
were  protected  by  Solon's  code,  and  a  right  of  complaint  against 
their  masters  allowed  in  cases  of  undue  severity.  Emancipated 
slaves  were  admitted  to  the  same  privileges  as  the  Metreci,  and  were 
required  to  choose  their  former  masters  as  patrons. 

260  A  democratic  character  was  given  to  the  constitution  of 
c  Solon  by  the  substitution  of  property  for  birth  as  a  qualifi- 
cation for  the  higher  offices  of  state.     In  accordance  with 
this  plan,  the  citizens  were  divided  into  four  classes: 
1.  The  Tteviaxoffioftidturoi,  who  obtained  yearly  from  their 
estates  500  measures  of  dry  and  liquid  produce.     2.  The 

D  inniis,  who  had  300  measures,  and  were  able  to  maintain 
a  war-horse.  3.  The  £fi'/iiai,  who  had  200  measures,  and 
kept  a  pair  of  farm-horses.  4.  The  #»jTff,  who  possessed 
a  smaller  income.  None  but  citizens  of  the  first  class 
were  eligible  to  the  Archonship  ;  and  by  consequence  no 
others  were  admissible  into  the  court  of  Areopagus.  The 
other  offices  of  state  were  open  to  the  three  first  classes, 

1  [" —  making  the  mina  be  counted  at  100,  instead  of  its  previous 
value,  73  drachmas." — Keightley's  Greece,  p.  62.] 


261—263.  §61.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  133 

and  all  enjoyed  the  right  of  voting  in  the  popular  atsem-  (260) 
blies  and  acting  as  judges.     In  this  manner,  Solon  con-  A 
trived  to  reconcile  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  nobility 
and  the  people  ;  the  former  continued  for  a  long  period  to 
monopolize  all  the  most  important  offices,  whilst  at  the 
same  time  the  personal  equality  of  all  free-born  citizens 
was  fully  recognized. 

The  citizens  of  the  first  and  second  classes  served  as  cavalry 
soldiers,  those  of  the  third  as  hoplites,  and  those  of  the  fourth  (only 
in  cases  of  necessity),  as  light-armed  troops,  and  at  a  later  period  as 
marines  on  board  the  fleet. 

The  NINE  Archons  were  retained.     They  were  chosen  261 
annually  by  lot  from  the  first  class ;  and  before  entering  B 
on  their  office,  were  required  to  undergo  a  formal  examina- 
tion, and  to  swear  that  they  would  neither  go  beyond  the 
law  nor  receive  bribes. 

The  Senate  (/fouiii),  which  from  the  time  of  Solon  262 
had  consisted  of  400  members  (abbve  thirty  years  of  age), 
100  for  each  Phyle,  was  increased  to  500  when  Cleisthenes 
divided  the  nation  into  ten  Phylae,  and  subsequently  to 
600,  on  the  addition  of  two  new  Phylce.  The  members 
were  chosen  annually  by  lot  (after  a  previous  scrutiny) 
from  the  three  first  classes.  The  senate  was  not  only  re- 
quired to  investigate  all  questions  previously  to  their  dis- 
cussion in  the  general  assembly,  but  was  also  charged  with 
the  superintendence  of  all  public  functionaries,  and  the 
various  branches  of  the  administration,  especially  as  re- 
garded financial  arrangements,  such  as  the  farming  out  the 
produce  of  the  public  lands,  and  the  income  arising  from 
the  mines,  import  duties  and  personal  taxes  paid  by  the 
^EToixof,  as  well  as  those  exacted  from  them  for  permission 
to  exercise  their  trades.  The  collection  of  rents  from  in- 
dividual farmers  was  also  intrusted  to  the  Senate. 

The  ASSEMBLY  OF  THE  PEOPLE  (sxxybjo-tw),  which  con-  263 
sisted  of  all  classes  of  citizens,  was  held  regularly  four  c 
times  in  each  Prytany  (thirty-five  or  thirty-six  days),  on 
the  Pnyx  (at  a  later  period  also  in  the  theatre),  and  after 
formal  debate  decided  such  questions  as  were  proposed  to 
it  by  the  senate,  respecting  the  enactment  or  repeal  of  laws, 
he   election   of    magistrates,    war    and    peace,    political 
offences,  &c.     They  voted  sometimes  by  holding  up  their 
hands,  and  sometimes  (as  in  the  Ostracism)  by  throwing 
pebbles  into  an  urn. 


134  EUROPE.— GREECE.       [264—266.    §61. 

264  The   COURT  OF  AREOPAGUS,  composed  of  ex-Archons 
A  who  had  discharged  the  duties  of  their  office  unblamably, 

held  its  sittings  by  night  on  the  hill  of  Ares  ["  Mars' 
Hill"].  To  them  was  committed  the  trial  of  grave  of- 
fences, as  well  as  the  superintendence  of  public  morals 
and  the  education  of  youth.  They  possessed  also  the  right 
of  investigating  and  annulling  the  decrees  of  the  popular 
assembly. 

For  the  lower  courts  of  justice  6000  men,  above  thirty  years 
of  age  (//A«iffra«),  were  annually  selected  by  lot  from  the  assembly 
of  the  people,  and  from  them  were  chosen  the  Thesmothetae  (gene- 
rally from  500  to  600)  required  for  the  trial  of  each  cause. 

B  After  engraving  on  tables  of  wood  and  setting  up  on  the 
Acropolis  his  code  of  laws,  which  the  people  swore  to 
observe  for  100  years,  Solon  travelled  into  Asia  Minor, 
Crete,  and  Egypt :  but  on  his  return  he  found  the  nation 
still  split  into  three  factions,  neither  of  which  was  satisfied 
with  the  privileges  which  it  had  obtained. 

265  PISISTRATUS,    a   mountain   chieftain,    of   the    race   of 
Codrus,  having  persuaded  his  countrymen  that  the  wounds 
inflicted  by  himself  on  his  own  person  were  the  work  of 
his  enemies,  obtained  a  body-guard  of  club-bearers  for  his 
protection,  and  with  their  assistance  seized  the  Acropolis, 
and  became  absolute  sovereign  of  Athens  (560).     He  was 
twice  expelled  from  the  city,  but  each  time  returned :  and 
having   at   last  obtained   the   confidence   of  the    people, 
embellished  the  city,  founded  the  first  library,  and  made  a 
collection  of  ancient  poems,  especially  those  of  Homer. 

266  The  government  was  carried  on  in  the  same  spirit  by 
c  his  eldest  son  HIPPIAS  (527 — 510),  who  allowed  a  con- 
siderable share  in  the  administration  to  his  brother  HIP- 
PARCHUS.     This  prince,  who  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer 
of  poetry,  was  assassinated  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogei- 
ton  (from  motives  of  private  revenge,  because  the  sistei 
of  Harmodius  had  been  excluded  by  the  Pisistratidse  from 
the  Panathenian  procession).     After  this  event  the  ad- 
ministration  of  Hippias  became  insufferably  severe  :  ami 
at  length,  after  putting  many  persons  to  death,  he  was 
expelled  by  the   Alcmaeonidac,  who   had    returned  from 
Macedonia,    and    were    assisted    by  the   Spartans,1    the 
enemies  of  all  tyranny,  and  by  the  disaffected  Athenians. 
In  the   year   510,  Hippias   abandoned   his  country  and 

1  Under  Cleomenes. 


267 — 270.  §62.]     EUROPE.— GREECE.  135 

sought   an   asylum    at   the   court  of  the   Persian   king, 
Darius  I. 

About  the  same  time  the  DEMOCRACY  was  completely  267 
established  by  the  Alcmseonid  Cleisthenes,  whoA 
endeavored  to  obliterate  all  historical  family  reminiscences 
by  dividing  the  people  into  ten  local  Phylse,  to  which  he 
gave  entirely  new  names,  and  admitted  into  them  many 
foreigners.  At  the  same  time  the  number  of  senators  was 
increased  to  500  (fifty  for  each  Phyle),  who  were  <iow 
chosen  by  lot.  An  ineffectual  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
new  constitution  was  made  by  I  sag  6  r  as,  at  the  head  of 
the  aristocratic  party,  supported  by  the  Spartans,  who 
were  always  favorable  to  the  aristocratical  form  of 
government.  Cleisthenes  and  his  party  were  compelled  to  B 
retire  from  Athens,  but  soon  returned.  To  him  is  ascribed 
the  invention  of  the  Ostracism,  a  popular  mode  of  banish- 
ing from  the  city  (generally  for  ten  years)  any  person  who, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  people,  had  become  too  powerful, 
even  although  he  was  charged  with  no  overt  act.  By  this 
arrangement,  the  democratic  party  possessed  the  power  of 
setting  aside  all  whose  wealth,  talent,  or  merit  rendered 
them  objects  of  jealousy. 

§  62.   The  Grecian  Colonies. 

During  this  period  (particularly  from  750  to  650),  a  268 
number  of  Grecian  colonies  were  established  on  the  islands  c 
and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  the   Propontis,  and  the 
Black  sea,  partly  for  purposes  of  commerce,  and  partly  as 
a  means  of  relieving  the  mother  country  from  a  super- 
abundant population,  or  in  consequence  of  political  dis- 
turbances.    These  settlements  adopted  for  the  most  part 
the  constitution,  manners,  and  institutions  of  the  mother 
country,    and  at  a  very  early  period  had  oligarchical  or 
aristocratical  forms  of  government ;  which,  however,  de- 
generated, even  sooner  than  in  Greece  proper,  into  demo- 
cracies or  tyrannies.     They  were  entirely  independent  of  D 
the  mother  country,  except  in  so  far  as  they  were  induced 
by  piety  to  accord  to  her  certain  privileges  and  distinctions. 

I.  AEOLIAN,    IONIAN,    and    DORIAN    COLONIES   on   the  269 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  see  §  57. 

II.  DORIAN  COLONIES  in  Lower  Italy,  or  Magna  Grse-  270 
cia  :  1.  Tarentum  (see  §  60) ;  2.  Locri  Epizephyrii 

7* 


136  EUROPE. — GREECE.       [271  —  273.    §62. 

(founded  in  the  first  instance  by  the  Ozolian  or  Opuntian 
Locrians,  and  afterwards  re-settled  by  Messenian  Dorians). 

271  III.  ACHJEAN  COLONIES,  in  Lower  Italy.     1.  Croton; 
A  2.  Sybaris.     After  the  destruction  of  this  settlement  by 

the  Crotoniates  (510),  another  city  named  Thurii  was 
founded  in  the  neighborhood  by  the  Athenians  (446). 

The  Sybarites  founded  Metapontum  and  Poseidonia,  the  latter  of 
which,  under  Lucanian  rule,  obtained  the  name  of  Poestum. 

272  IV.  CHALCIDIAN  COLONIES  :  a.  On  the  Thradan  coast 
(where  the  whole  peninsula  between  the  Thermaic  and 
Strymonic  gulfs  had  the  name  of  Chalcidice)  were  thirty- 
two  places  (Olynthus,  C  hale  is,  &c.)  all  of  Chalcidian 
origin,     b.  In  Lower  Italy:    1.  Cumae  [or  Cyme;    in 

B  Greek  /ti'/n/],  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Grecian  settle- 
ments in  the  west,  and  the  mother-city  of  Neap 6l is;  3. 
Rhegium.  c.  In  Sicily  :  1.  Naxos  (afterwards  Tauro- 
menium),  with  the  daughter-cities  of  Leontini  and 
Cat  an  a;  2.Zancle  (afterwards  a  Dorian  city  under  the 
name  of  Messana)  ;  3.  Himera. 

273  V.  DORIAN   COLONIES:    a.  In   Sicily,    \.  Syracuse 
c  founded  about  the  year  735,  by  Archias,  a  Corinthian,  on 

the  island  of  Ortygia.     It  subsequently  became  four  cities : 

2.  The  Hyblaean  Megara  (destroyed  by  the  Syracusan 
tyrant,  Gelon,  about  480),  with  its  daughter  city  S  e  1 1  n  u  s ; 

3.  Gela,  with  its  daughter  city  Agrigentum  (destroyed  by 
the  Carthaginians  in  405,  and"  restored  by  Timoleon).     b. 
A  chain  of   Corinthian   settlements   on  the   coast  of  the 
Ionian   sea,  viz.  Leucas,    Anactorium,  Ambracia, 
Apollonia,  Epidamnus,  and  particularly  Corcyra. 
c.  On  the  Thradan  coast :  1.  Potidsea  (founded  by  Co- 
rinth);  2.  Byzantium  (by  Megara);  d.  On  the  Thradan 
Bosporus,  Chalcedon. 

D  Outline  of  the  History  of  Syracuse. — Syracuse  underwent  more 
numerous  changes  of  constitution  than  even  her  mother  country, 
Corinth  (see  §  58).  a.  Aristocracy  from  the  establishment  of  the 
colony  to  the  time  of  Gelon  (735 — 484).  During  this  period  the 
supreme  authority  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  few  rich  families 
(Gamoroi),  who  were  expelled  by  the  democratic  party  and  an  in- 
surrection of  the  slaves,  but  restored  by  Gelon,  lord  of  Gela.  0. 
Tyranny  (488 — 466),  under  three  brothers,  who  succeeded  each 
other  in  the  following  order — Gelon,  who  overthrew  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  Himera  on  the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Salamis  (480), 
Hieron,  and  Thrasybulus.  The  last  was  deposed,  after  a  reign  of 
eight  months,  on  account  of  his  cruelty,  y.  Democracy  (466—405), 


274 — 278.  §  63.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.          _  137 

introduction  of  the  Petalismus,  for  the  purpose  of  expelling  citizens  (273) 
who  had  become  objects  of  suspicion.  Attempt  on  Syracuse  by  the  » 
Athenians  (415—413).  i.  Tyranny  (405—343),  Dionysius  I.  and 
his  son  Dionysius  II.  thrice  waged  war  against  Carthage ;  Timoleon 
being  invited  from  Corinth  to  take  the  command  of  the  Syracusans, 
overthrew  the  Corinthians,  expelled  the  tyrants,  and  re-established 
c.  the  democracy  (343 — 317).  <.  Tyranny  (317 — 269),  Agathocles 
(317 — 289),  took  most  of  the  Grecian  cities  in  Sicily,  and  waged  a 
fresh  war  with  the  Corinthians  (comp.  §  40.  ii.).  He  was  succeeded 
by  Maenon  and  Icetas.  *.  Kings  (269 — 212).  The  reign  of  Hiero 
II.,  who  was  chosen  king  on  account  of  his  victory  over  the  Mamer- 
lines,  and  carried  on  war  for  a  short  time  against  Rome  (see  §  118), 
was  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Syracusan  history.  His  great 
grandson,  Hieronymus,  made  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginians, 
which  occasioned  the  siege  and  capture  of  the  city  by  Marcellus, 
in  212.  For  Dionysius,  v.  Arnold's  Rome,  ch.  21. 

VI.  COLONIES   OF  MILETUS. — a.    On  the  Hellespont —  274 
Abydus    and    Lampsacus.      b.    On  the  Propontis — B 

C  y  z  i  c  us.  c.  On  the  Pontus  Euxinus — S  i  n 6  p  e  (with  its 
daughter  city  Trapezus),  Phasis,Tanais,atthe  mouth 
of  the  river  Tanais,  Panticapaeum,  Olbia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Borysthcnes,  Tomi,  &c. 

VII.  COLONIES    OF   THE  PHOCJSANS:    Aleria    on   the  275 
island  of  Corsica,  and  Massilia,  on  the  southern  coast 

of  Gallia. 

VIII.  COLONY  OF  ZACYNTHUS  :  Saguntum,  on  the  east-  276 
ern  coast  of  Spain.  c 

The  establishment  of  two  colonies  by  Athens  (Amphi- 
polis  in  Macedonia,  and  Thurii  in  Magna  Graecia),  oc- 
curs during  the  next  period.  For  the  colony  established 
in  Gyrene,  see  §  57. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

From  the   Persian  wars  to  the  Decline  of 

Grecian  Independence,  500 — 338. 

§  63.   The  Persian  Wars. 

(500 — 449.) 

For  the  causes  of  the  Persian  wars  (the  participation  277 
of  the   Athenians   and   Eretrians   in   the   revolt   of   the  D 
lonians),  see  §  21,  b.  4. 

A.  DEFENSIVE  WAR  AGAINST  THE  PERSIANS,  492 — 479.  278 
First  campaign  of  the  Persians  under  Mardonius  (492)  ; 
second  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes    (490).     See  §  21, 
b.  4. 

After  the   victory   of    Marathon    29th   Sept.    490), 


138  EUROPE. — GREECE.  [279.    §63. 

(278)  Miltiades  formed  the  design  of  chastising  those  islands 

A  of  the  ^Egean  sea  which  had  revolted  to  the  Persians 
during  the  war.  This  project  succeeded  as  far  as  regarded 
Lemnos,  but  his  attempts  to  carry  Paros  being  unsuccess- 
ful, he  was  condemned  on  his  return  to  pay  a  pecuniary 
fine,  which  his  son  was  compelled  to  raise  after  the  death 
of  his  father.  The  fate  of  Athens,  after  the  decease  of 
Miltiades,  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Themis- 
tocles,  and  of  Aristides,  surnamed  the  "Just." 
Themistocles  having  espoused  the  popular  cause  as  the 

B  most  likely  mode  of  carrying  out  his  ambitious  views, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  ostracism  of  his  rival  by  spread- 
ing a  false  report,  that  Aristides  wished  to  exclude  the 
common  people  from  the  privilege  of  sitting  as  judges. 
At  the  same  time,  he  prevailed  on  them  to  pass  a  decree 
authorizing  the  expenditure  in  ship-building  of  the  revenue 
arising  from  the  silver  mines  of  Laurion  (thirty  to  forty 
talents),  which  had  hitherto  been  divided  annually  among 
the  people.  This  measure,  dictated,  as  he  pretended,  by 

c  obedience  to  the  oracle,  which  had  counselled  the  Athe- 
nians "  to  seek  for  shelter  behind  their  wooden  walls,"  was 
in  reality  the  result  of  that  sharp-sighted  policy,  which 
foresaw  the  preservation  and  future  aggrandizement  of 
Athens,  in  the  establishment  of  a  naval  power  as  a  coun- 
terpoise to  the  superiority  of  Lacedaemon  by  land. 
279  THIRD  CAMPAIGN  OF  THE  PERSIANS  IN  480. — Even 
the  advance  of  an  immense  Persian  army  (comp.  §  21,. 
B.  5)  scarcely  awakened  the  Greeks  to  a  sense  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  combined  exertions.  Thebes  and  the  greater 

D  part  of  Boeotia  openly  took  part  with  the  barbarians,  whilst 
Sparta,  at  the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian  league,  was  sup- 
ported only  by  Athens  and  her  allies,  the  cities  of  Thespise 
and  Plataese.  An  attempt  to  dispute  the  entrance  of  the  in- 
vading army  into  Thessaly  by  the  pass  of  Tempe  having 
failed,  the  Spartan  king  Leonid  as  was  detached,  with 
300  Spartans  and  4900  Greek  soldiers  of  other  nations,  to 
defend  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  ;  a  Greek  fleet,  under  the 
command  of  Eurybiades,  a  Spartan,  being  at  the  same 
time  stationed  off  the  headland  of  Artemisium.  As  soon 
as  he  heard  of  the  treachery  of  Ephialtes,  Leonidas  dis- 
missed all  his  allies  except  the  Medizing1  Thebans,  and  a 

1  [To  Medize  =  to  favor  the  Mtdes.] 


280.    §63.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  139 

little  band  of  700  Thespians  who  voluntarily  remained  at  (279) 
their  post.  After  a  brave  resistance,  the  patriot  army,  A 
consisting  of  these  Thespians  and  300  Spartans,  was  en- 
tirely  cut  to  pieces.  The  Thebans  laid  down  their  arms ; 
and  the  Persian  army,  advancing  without  opposition,  tra- 
versed Attica,  and  burnt  the  city  of  Athens,  which  had 
been  abandoned  by  the  inhabitants.  Meanwhile,  the  Grecian 
fleet  having  been  twice  engaged  with  the  Persians  off 
Artemisium,  without  obtaining  any  decided  advantage, 
had  retired  to  Salamis,  where  Themistocles(who  had 
already  bribed  Eurybiades  to  continue  at  his  post,  and  now, 
by  means  of  a  stratagem,  compelled  the  Peloponnesians  to 
risk  another  engagement)  obtained  a  splendid  victory  over 
the  Persian  fleet  on  the  23d  of  September. 

By  a  second  stratagem  of  Themistocles  (the  destruction  280 
of  the  bridge  over  the  Hellespont),  Xerxes  was  induced  to  B 
hasten  his  return  into  Asia,  leaving  behind  him  in  Thessaly 
Mardonius,  with  300,000  men.  After  fruitless  negotiations 
with  the  Greeks,  carried  on  through  the  intervention  of 
Alexander  king  of  Macedonia,  Mardonius  invaded  Attica  in 
the  year  479.  The  Atheniansr  abandoning  their  city  for  the 
second  time,  fled  for  refuge  to  their  ships  and  to  the  island  of 
Salamis.  The  Spartans  now  sent  an  army  to  the  assistance  c 
of  their  allies ;  and  Mardonius,  falling  back  on  Boaotia, 
was  utterly  defeated  near  Platsese  (25th  of  September) 
by  the  united  forces  of  the  Athenians  under  Aristides 
(recalled  from  banishment  to  take  the  command),  and  the 
Spartans  under  their  king  Pausanias.  In  this  action  Mar- 
donius was  slain,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army.  The 
rich  camp  of  the  invader  was  plundered  by  the  conquerors, 
and  the  city  of  Thebes  closely  besieged,  until  the  leaders 
of  the  Medizing  faction  were  delivered  up  to  Pausanias, 
who  put  them  all  to  death  (at  Corinth).  On  the  same  day  D 
the  Persians  (who  had  intrenched  themselves  behind  a 
bulwark,  formed  partly  of  their  ships,  which  they  had 
hauled  up  on  land  near  the  promontory  of  My  c  ale,  in 
Asia  Minor)  were  defeated  by  the  Spartan  king  Leotychides, 
and  the  Athenian  Xanthippus.  This  battle,  followed  by 
the  destruction  of  the  Persian  camp  and  fleet,  was  the  first 
aggressive  movement  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks,  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  liberation  of  the  islands  and  the 
restoration  of  independence  to  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor. 


140  EUROPE. — GREECE.         [281,  282.    §  63, 

(280)  Under  the  administration  of  Themistocles,  Athens  was 
A  rebuilt, on  a  more  extensive  scale,  and  the  fortifications 
completed  .with  astonishing  rapidity,  notwithstanding  the 
remonstrances  of  the  Spartans,  who  viewed  with  distrust 
the  increasing  power  of  their  rivals.  At  the  same  time, 
the  commodious  harbor  of  Piraeus  was  also  completed  and 
fortified.  As  a  reward  for  their  bravery,  Aristides  obtained 
the  enactment  of  a  law,  by  which  citizens  of  the  fourth 
class  were  rendered  eligible  to  all  offices  of  state. 

281  B.  AGGRESSIVE  MARITIME  WAR  AGAINST  THE  PERSIANS 
B  UNDER  THE  HEGEMONY  OF  ATHENS  (478 — 449). — The  war 

was  continued  by  the  allied  fleet,  under  the  command  of 
Pausanias,  Aristides,  and  Cimon,  with  the  view  of  expel- 
ling the  Persians  from  Thrace,  the  Greek  islands,  and  the 
colonies  of  Asia  Minor.  The  greater  part  of  Cyprus  was 
subdued,  together  with  Byzantium ;  but  the  haughty  ar- 
rogance of  Pausanias  so  disgusted  the  allies,  that  they 
transferred  the  maritime  Hegemony  from  Sparta  to  Athens 
(477  ?).  The  Spartans  hereupon  recalled  Pausanias,  and 
refused  to  take  any  further  part  in  the  war  against  the 
Persians,  which  was  now  carried  on  with  considerable 
success  by  the  Athenians  and  their  allies. 

c  The  Hegemony  of  Sparta  over  the  other  Peloponnesian  states 
consisted  in  this — that  in  all  wars  undertaken  by  general  consent  a 
Spartan  should  take  the  command  in  chief  of  the  allied  army ;  and 
that  all  congresses  and  councils  of  the  allies  should  be  held  at  Sparta. 
Until  the  Persian  war  this  Hegemony  was  confined  to  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, but,  in  consequence  of  the  almost  universal  participation 
of  the  .Greeks  in  these  wars,  the  system  was  so  far  extended,  that  at 
the  battle  of  Mycale  Sparta  found  herself  at  the  head  of  a  con- 
federacy, which,  in  addition  to  most  of  the  states  of  the  mother 
country,  comprehended  also  the  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
Athens,  on  withdrawing  from  this  Hegemony,  naturally  found  allies 
in  the  colonists  (for  the  most  part  democratical),  whom  she  had  de- 
livered from  the  Persian  yoke,  and  over  whom  she  already  exercised 

D  a  species  of  Hegemony,  as  the  chief .  maritime  power.  The  tyranny 
of  Pausanias  soon  compelled,  as  we  have  seen,  the  rest  of  the  allies 
to  withdraw  from  the  Spartan  Hegemony,  and  seek  protection  by 
placing  the  Athenians  at  the  head  of  the  confederacy.  The  proposal 
being  willingly  accepted,  Aristides  drew  up  a  plan,  in  which  the 
relative  duties  of  the  allied  powers  were  distinctly  defined.  Each 
state  was  to  furnish  a  contingent  either  of  ships  or  money ;  and  the 
island  of  Delos  was  to  be  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  congress,  and 
the  depository  of  the  common  chest,  the  administration  of  which  was 
committed  to  the  Athenians. 

282  From  this  period  commences   the   development  of  a 


283.    §64.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.  141 

fierce  antagonism  between  the  aristocratic  and  democratic  (282) 
states  of  Greece,  which  gradually  split  into  two  parties ;  A 
of  which  Athens  and  Sparta  were  respectively  the  heads 
and  representatives.  But  even  in  Athens  itself  there  still 
lingered  a  restless  aristocratic  faction,  which  persuaded  the 
people  that  danger  was  to  be  apprehended  from  the  popu- 
larity of  Themistocles;  and  being  aided  by  the  secret 
co-operation  of  Sparta,  at  length  obtained  his  banishment  by 
ostracism  in  the  year  473  (?).  Themistocles  retired,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  Argos ;  but  being  accused  of  maintaining 
a  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Persians,  in  con- 
junction with  Pausanias,  he  quitted  that  country,  and 
sought  the  protection  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  who  granted  him 
for  his  support  the  revenues  of  three  cities  (Magnesia, 
My  us,  and  Lampsacus.)  He  died  (it  is  said,  by  drinking  B 
ox's  blood  ?)  without  attempting  any  thing  against  his 
native  country.  Pausanias,  who  had  been  engaged  in 
secret  negotiations  with  the  Persians  for  the  abolition  of 
the  Ephorate  and  increase  of  the  kingly  power  at  Sparta, 
escaped  arrest  by  taking  refuge  in  a  temple,  where  he  was 
starved  to  death.  Aristides  died  about  the  same  time 
(468  ?)  in  extreme  poverty.  After  the  banishment  of 
Themistocles,  and  the  death  of  Aristides,  Pericles  seems 
to  have  been  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party,  and  Ci- 
m on,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  of  the  aristocratic;  the  policy 
of  which  was  to  keep  the  people  employed  by  continuing 
the  war.  Cimon,  being  appointed  commander-in-chief  c 
of  the  army  of  the  league,  expelled  the  Persians  from 
Thrace,  Caria,  and  Lycia ;  defeated  them,  by  sea  and  land, 
on  the  river  Eurymedon;  and  expended  the  booty  ob- 
tained by  these  victories  in  beautifying  Athens,  and  join- 
ing Piraeus  to  the  city  by  means  of  the  long  walls. 


§  64.    The  third  Messenian  War. 
[465  (or  464)— 456  (or  455).] 

The  Spartans  were  on  the  eve  of  invading  Attica,  for  283 
the  purpose  of  defeating  the  designs  of  the  Athenians  on  D 
the  island  of  Thasus,  when  their  preparations  were  arrested 
by  a  tremendous  earthquake,  by  which  20,000  persons  lost 
their  lives.     The  oppressed  Helots  availed  themselves  of 
this  opportunity  to  make  an  attempt  on  the  city,  whilst  it 


142  EUROPE. GREECE.        [284.  §65. 

(283)  lay  in  ruins,  but  finding  the  Spartans  drawn  up  in  arms, 
A  under  the  command  of  their  king  Archidamus,  they  re- 
treated to  Ithome,  which  they  occupied  in  conjunction  with 
the  Messenians.  Through  the  influence  of  the  aristocratic 
party,  particularly  of  Cimon,  aid  was  afforded  to  the 
Spartans  by  the  people  of  Athens.  Cimon  himself  marched 
twice  into  Messenia,  but  as  the  place  continued  to  hold  out, 
and  he  no  longer  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  Spartans, 
he  was  dismissed ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  disgrace 
was  banished  by  the  ostracism,  at  the  instance  of  the 
B  democratic  party,  headed  by  his  rival  Pericles.  At  length, 
after  sustaining  a  siege  of  ten  years,  tne  Messenians  were 
permitted  to  depart  uninjured,  and  occupy  Naupactus, 
which  had  been  taken  by  the  Athenians  a  short  time  pre- 
viously from  the  Locri  Ozolae. 


§  65.   The  age  of  Pericles. 

284      A.  DEGENERACY  OF  THE  ATHENIAN  DEMOCRACY. 

From  the  banishment  of  Cimon  may  be  dated  the  com- 
mencement of  democratic  supremacy,  the  people  being 
entirely  governed  by  the  influence  of  its  leaders  ;  among 
whom  the  most  powerful  was  Pericles,  the  son  of  Xan- 
thippus, — a  man  who,  although  he  had  never  filled  the 
office  of  Archon,  exercised  almost  unlimited  control  as  a 
popular  orator  and  commander  during  a  period  of  forty 
c  years  (468 — 429).  The  means  of  carrying  out  his  various 
innovations  were  principally  afforded  by  the  removal  of 
the  exchequer  of  the  league  from  Delos  to  Athens.  Ever 
since  the  Athenians  had  supplied  shipping  and  troops,  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  war,  in  return  for  the  pe- 
cuniary contingents  of  the  allies,  they  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  looking  on  the  common  treasury  as  their  own 
property,  and  instead  of  employing  the  finances  against 
D  Persia,  had  applied  them  to  their  own  purposes.  To  such 
an  extent  was  this  abuse  carried,  that  the  funds  contributed 
by  the  allies  of  Athens  were  even  used  as  an  instrument 
for  destroying  the  independence  of  those  who  had  supplied 
them  ;  it  being,  of  course,  requisite  that  all  lawsuits  con- 
nected with  these  finances  should  be  decided  at  Athens  by 
the  Heliasts.  Besides  this,  all  the  allies  (among  whom 
were  now  included  all  the  Grecian  cities  on  the  coasts  of 


285 — 287.  §65.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  143 

Macedonia  and  Thrace,  as  well  as  those  on  the  western  (284) 
and  southern  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  as  far  as  Pamphylia,  A 
and  the  islands  of  the  jEgean  sea)  were  not  only  compelled, 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  Persian  war,  to  continue  the 
payment  of  war-taxes,  but  these  contributions  were  gra- 
dually raised  to  double  the  original  amount.  With  such 
^esources  at  his  disposal,  Pericles  not  only  embellished  the 
city  with  the  most  magnificent  buildings,  but  also  found 
means  of  inducing  the  poorer  citizens  to  take  a  greater 
interest  in  public  affairs,  by  granting  them  a  remuneration 
for  their  attendance  at  the  public  assemblies  and  in  the 
courts  of  justice.  He  also  introduced  the  practice  of  B 
paying  the  army,  and  discharged  out  of  the  public  ex- 
chequer the  fees  required  from  the  poorer  classes  for 
admission  to  the  theatre.  As  the  only  obstacle  to  his 
design  of  raising  the  lower  orders,  and  by  consequence 
increasing  his  own  power,  was  found  in  the  Areopagus, 
now  the  sole  representative  of  aristocratic  interests, 
Pericles  obtained  (on  the  motion  of  one  Ephialtes)  a 
decree  that  the  right  of  deciding  certain  causes,  as  well  as 
the  guardianship  of  public  morals,  and  the  superintendence 
of  the  public  treasure,  should  be  withdrawn  from  that 
court. 


B.      FOREIGN    AND    DOMESTIC     WARS    DURING    THIS  285 
PERIOD. 

1.  THE    PARTICIPATION    OF    THE    ATHENIANS   IN   THE  286 
INSURRECTION  OF  THE  EGYPTIANS,    AND  OF   THE   SATRAP  c 
INARUS  (460 — 455)  AGAINST  THE  PERSIANS,  ended  with 
the  blockade  of  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the  Nile,  off  the 
island  of  Prosopitis  (see  §  21,  B.  6). 

2.  WAR    OF    THE    ATHENIANS    WITH    THE    SPARTANS  287 
AND    BOEOTIANS    (457 — 450). — In   order  to  establish    in 
Boeotia  a  counterpoise   to  the  power  of  Athens,  by  re- 
storing the  influence  formerly  possessed  by  the  aristocratic 
government  of  Thebes,   the  Spartans,  under  pretence  of 
expelling  the  Phocians  who  had  invaded  the  Doric  father- 
land, sent  an  army  into  central  Greece.      But  all  the  ad-  D 
vantages  which  they  and   their  allies,  the  Bosotian  and 
Athenian  oligarchs,  expected  to  have  gained  by  the  victory 

of  Tanagra  (457),  were  soon  neutralized  by  a  victory 
obtained  by  the  Athenians,  under  My  ronides (near  (Eno- 


144  EUROPE. — GREECE.       [288 — '290.    §66 

(287)  phyta) ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  Boeotians,  Phocians. 
A  and  Opuntian  Locrians,  joined  the  Athenian  confederacy. 
As  a  severe  struggle  with  Sparta  was  apprehended,  Pericles 
consented  to  the  recall  of  Cimon,  and,  through  his  inter- 
vention, obtained  an  armistice  for  five  years  with  the 
Peloponnesians  (450). 

288  3.  After  their  reconciliation  with  Sparta,  a  fresh  cam- 
paign against  the  Persians  was  undertaken  by  the 
Athenians,  at  the  instance  of  Cimon,  who  engaged  to  re- 
duce the  island  of  Cyprus,  but  died  whilst   blockading 
Citium.      On  their  way  home,  his  fleet  and  land  army 
overthrew  the  Egyptians  at  Salamis  of  Cyprus  (449). 

289  4.    WAR   OF   THE    ATHENIANS  AGAINST  THE  BOSOTIAN 
B  ARISTOCRACY  (447). — A  number  of  aristocratically  dis- 
posed citizens,  exiles  from  those  Boeotian  cities  which  had 
been  compelled  to  join  the  Athenian  confederacy,  having 
united  for  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  Athenians,  a  battle 
was  fought  at  Co  rone  a  (447),  where  Tolmides  was  slain, 
and  the  Boeotians  gained  such  a  victory  as  enabled  them 
to  attain  their  object.      The  Peloponnesians,  after  the  ex- 
piration of  the  five  years'  armistice,  having  invaded  Attica, 
for  the  purpose  of  embarrassing  Pericles  in  his  endeavors 
to  reconquer  the  revolted  island  of  Euboea,  the  Athenian 
commander,  in  order  to  secure  the  island,  concluded  a  truce 

c  with  the  Peloponnesians  for  thirty  years  (445).  The  con- 
ditions of  this  treaty  were,  that  all  places  taken  from  the 
Peloponnesians  during  the  war  should  be  given  up  ;  and 
that  Athens  and  Sparta  should  each  confirm  and  respect 
the  Hegemony  of  the  other  ;  but  unfortunately  permis- 
sion was,  at  the  same  time,  granted  to  the  neutral  states 
to  join  the  alliance  or  not,  as  they  might  think  fit, — an 
arrangement  which  laid  the  foundation  of  fresh  disputes. 

§  66.   The  Peloponnesian  War. 

(431_404.) 
200      CAUSES. — 1.    The   opposition   between  the  ARIS- 

D  TOCRATICAL  PARTY  and    that   DEMOCRATIC    ELEMENT,    which 

was  rapidly  acquiring  the  ascendency,  in  spite  of  the  re- 
sistance offered  by  Lacedaemon  and  the  other  aristocratic 
states.  One  of  the  most  prominent  signs  of  this  antago- 
nism was  the  jealousy  between  Athens  and  Sparta, 


291  —  293.  §66.]     EUROPE.  —  GREECE.  145 

created  by  the  transfer  of  the  Hegemony  to  Athens,  and  (290) 
the  fortification  of  that  city;    a  feeling  which  had  been  A 
aggravated  by  the  insult  offered  to  Athens  in  the  dismissal 
of  her  troops  during  the  third  Messenian  war,  and  by  the 
active  participation  of  the  rival  powers  in  the  political 
disputes  of  other  states.      2.  The  discontent  of  the  allies, 
who  were  treated  as  vassals  by  Athens,  and  had  made 
several  ineffectual  attempts  to  throw  off  the  yoke. 

IMMEDIATE  CAUSES  OF  HOSTILITIES  —  1.  A  War  be-  291 
twcen  Corcyra  and  Corinth  (434  —  432).  —  Epidamnus,  a  B 
colony  of  Corcyra,  being  hard  pressed  by  her  banished 
nobles  in  conjunction  with  the  Illyrian  barbarians,  and 
having  applied  in  vain  to  the  mother-country  for  assistance, 
had  admitted  troops  sent  by  Corinth,  the  mother-country 
of  Corcyra.  Hence  the  war  between  Corcyra  and  Corinth. 
The  Corcyraeans  obtain  a  victory  (off  Actium),  blockade 
Epidamnus,  and  conclude  an  alliance  with  the  Athenians, 
who  take  part  in  a  third,  but  indecisive,  engagement  ; 
and  through  this  alliance  extend  their  authority  to  the 
coasts  of  the  Ionian  sea.  2.  The  revolt  of  Potidcea,  c 
a  Corinthian  colony,  from  Athens,  in  disgust  at  a  command 
issued  by  the  Athenians,  that  they  should  pull  down  the 
walls  of  their  city.  The  Potidseans,  although  supported 
by  Corinth,  are  conquered,  and  their  city  blockaded.  At 
a  congress  of  the  Peloponnesian  powers,  held  at  Sparta, 
by  desire  of  the  Corinthians,  war  against  Athens  is  resolved 
}n,  principally  at  the  instigation  of  the  Corinthians  and 
Megarseans,  in  opposition  to  the  advice  of  king  Archidamus. 

ALLIES.  —  a.  Of  Athens.  Thessalian  cavalry  —  Acarnanians  —  the  292 
Messeniana  in  Naupactus,  Plataeae,  almost  all  the  islands  of  the 
JEgean  sea,  and  in  the  Ionian  sea  Corcyra  and  Zacynthus  ;  most  of 
the  Greek  cities  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Hellespont, 
and  the  shores  of  Thrace,  b.  Of  Sparta.  The  whole  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, except  Argos  and  Achaia,  which  remained  neutral,  Megara, 
Boeotia,  Phocis,  Locris,  the  island  of  Leucas,  and  the  cities  of  Am- 
bracia  and  Anactorium. 


I.     TEN  YEARS'  WAR  [o  fcxaEir/s  nofonoq]  TO  THE  FIFTY 

YEARS'  TRUCE  OF  NICIAS. 

(431_421.) 

The  war  commenced  with  the  invasion  of  Attica  by  the  293 
Peloponnesians,  under  Archidamus,  which  was  regularly 
repeated  every  year  ;  the  Athenians  making  reprisals  by 
sending  a  fleet  to  ravage  the  coasts  of  Peloponnesus.  As  the 


146  EUROPE. — GREECE.       [294,  295.  §  66. 

(293)  Athenians  evaded  their  enemies  by  land,  and  the  Spartans 
A  shrunk  from  a  naval  engagement,  neither  party  obtained  any 
decided  advantage.  The  inhabitants  of  Attica,  by  the  advice 
of  Pericles,  sought  refuge  within  the  walls  of  the  city  ; 
where  a  pestilence  [the  famous  Plague]  broke  out,  which, 
among  its  numerous  victims,  carried  off  Pericles  himself 
(B.  c.  439).  After  his  death  the  democracy  of  Athens 
degenerated  into  an  unbridled  oligarchy.  The  blockaded 
city  of  Potidaea  was  reduced  in  430;  and  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  the  whole  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  Me- 
thymna,  had  also  thrown  off  its  allegiance  to  Athens,  was 
compelled  (the  relief  promised  by  Sparta  having  arrived 
B  too  late)  to  surrender  at  discretion  (427).  By  the  advice 
of  Cleon,  sentence  of  death  was  passed  on  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Mitylene,  but  on  the  following  day  it  was  com- 
muted into  an  order  for  the  execution  of  the  principal  con- 
spirators. One  thousand  of  the  most  distinguished  Lesbians 
were  nevertheless  put  to  death,  their  ships  of  war  taken 
away,  and  the  whole  island  (with  the  exception  of  Me- 
thymna)  assigned  to  the  Athenians  in  3000  lots. 

294  In  the  year  429  the  Athenians  sent  a  fleet  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Leontines,  who  were  engaged  in  war  with  Syracuse.     Demosthenes, 
who  accompanied  a  second  fleet  destined  for  the  same  service,  landed 
in  the  dismantled  port  of  Pylos,  which  he  fortified,  but  was  soon 
blockaded  by  the  Spartans,  both  by  sea  and  land  ;  a  situation  from 
which  he  was  delivered  by  Eurymedon.     The  Spartans  stationed  on 
the  island  of  Sphacteria,  opposite  Pylos,  being  cut  off  from  the  main 
army  by  Eurymedon,  were  taken  prisoners  by  Cleon  [the  demagogue, 
to  whom  the  command  had  been  given,  as  a  practical  joke,  that  he 
might  make  good  his  frequent  assertions,  that  if  the  generals  were 
men,  the  Lacedaemonians  might  be  captured  with  ease]  (425). 

295  In    the    year    424    the  Athenians   took  the   important 
island  of  Cythera,  and  ravaged  the  Laconian  coast ;  but 
their  good  fortune  had  now  reached  its  greatest  height,  for 
the  next  year  they  were   defeated    by  the  Boeotians  at 
Delium  (where  Alcibiades  saved  the  life  of  Socrates) ;  and 
about  the  same  time  several  of  their  colonies  in  Chalcidice, 
including  Amphipolis  itself,  were  wrested  from  them  by 
the  Spartan  commander   Brasidas  (Thucydides   rescued 

D  Eion,  but  was  nevertheless  banished).  For  the  purpose  of 
reconquering  these  cities,  Cleon  was  dispatched  with  an 
army  to  the  Macedonian  coast ;  but  being  forced  by  Bra- 
sidas to  risk  an  engagement,  he  was  defeated  at  AMPHIPOLIS 


296,  297.  §  66.]      EUROPE. — GREECE.  147 

in  422.     Both  generals  having  fallen  in  the  engagement,  (295) 
a  truce  for  fifty  years  was  negotiated  by  Nicias;  it  A 
being  stipulated  that  each  party  should  be  placed  in  the 
position  which  it  had  occupied  before  the  commencement 
of  the  war. 

II.  FROM  THE  RENEWAL  OF  THE  WAR  TO  THE  ISSUE  OF 
THE  EXPEDITION  AGAINST  SICILY. 

(418—413.) 

As  some  of  the  Dorian  states  were  dissatisfied  with  the  peace  of  296 
Nicias,  a  confederation  for  its  maintenance  was  formed  between 
Athens  and  Sparta,  which  produced  the  establishment  of  a  counter- 
league  between  Argos,  Elis,  and  Mantinea.  But  presently  complaints 
arose  on  both  sides  respecting  the  non-fulfilment  of  certain  articles  of 
the  treaty  ;  and  Alcibiades,  availing  himself  of  the  misunderstand- 
ing thus  created  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  persuaded  the  Athenians 
to  renounce  their  alliance  with  Sparta,  and  join  the  Argive  confeder- 
acy. The  Lacedaemonians  and  their  allies,  although  they  obtained  a 
victory  over  the  army  of  the  league  at  Mantinea  in  418,  were  unable 
to  prevent  a  renewal  of  the  treaty  between  Argos  and  Athens. 

THE  EXPEDITION  AGAINST  SICILY  (415—413). — The  297 
Athenians,  being  invited  to  aid  the  inhabitants  of  Egesta,  B 
in  Sicily,  against  Syracuse  and  Selinus,  were  persuaded 
by  Alcibiades  (in  opposition  to  the  advice  of  Nicias)  to 
send  thither  a  fleet  of  134  ships,  under  the  command  of 
Alcibiades,  Nicias,  and  Lamachus.  The  expedition  had 
scarcely  landed,  and  commenced  the  blockade  of  Catana, 
when  the  Salaminia  (the  vessel  employed  for  conveying 
sacred  embassies)  arrived,  with  dispatches  to  Alcibiades, 
commanding  his  immediate  return  to  Athens,  that  he  might 
defend  himself  against  a  charge  of  mutilating  the  statues 
of  Hermes,  and  profaning  the  Eleusinian  mysteries. 
Alcibiades  escaped  by  landing  at  Thurii,  whence  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Argos,  and  being  condemned  to  death  at  Athens, 
sought  an  asylum  at  Sparta,  where  he  persuaded  the  gov- 
ernment to  support  the  Syracusans.  Meanwhile,  Nicias  c. 
was  victorious  in  a  battle  fought  under  the  walls  of  Syra- 
cuse ;  and  the  city,  being  closely  invested,  was  on  the  eve 
of  surrender,  when  Gy  lippus  came  to  its  assistance  with 
a  Spartan  fleet.  Nicias  also  received  a  reinforcement, 
commanded  by  Eurymedon  and  Demosthenes  ;  but  the 
Syracusans,  who  were  now  supported  by  all  the  Greek 
cities  in  Sicily,  except  Agrigentum,  obtained  a  victory  over 
the  Athenian  fleet,  which  they  blockaded  in  the  port. 


148  EUROPE.  -  GREECE.         [298.  §  66. 

(297)  A  last  attempt  to  break  through  the  blockading  line  having 
A  entirely  failed,  the  crews  abandoned  their  vessels,  and 
commencing  a  retreat  by  land,  were  taken  prisoners  by 
the  enemy.  Nicias  and  Demosthenes  were  put  to  death,  the 
prisoners  thrown  into  the  stone  quarries,  and  after  seventy 
days  of  suffering,  the  survivors  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Athenians,  Siceliotes,  and  Italiotes)  were  sold  as  slaves. 

III.  THE  DECELEAN  WAR. 


298  Following  the  advice  of  Alcibiades,  the  Spartan  army, 
E  under  the  command  of  their  king  Agis,  invaded  Attica, 
and  fortified  Decelea,  which  thenceforward  became  the 
stronghold  from  which  parties  were  sent  out  to  ravage  the 
country.  At  the  same  time,  20,000  runaway  Athenian 
slaves  joined  the  expedition.  The  resources  of  their  allies 
being  utterly  exhausted,  the  Athenians  were  compelled  to 
substitute  for  the  direct  tax  hitherto  paid  a  duty  of  five 
per  cent.,  ad  valorem,  on  all  articles  imported  and  ex- 
ported; a  grievance  which  occasioned  the  revolt  of  many 
c  of  their  allies  in  Asia  Minor.  Whilst  Athens  was  thus 
deprived  of  all  those  resources  which  secured  to  the  Demos 
a  majority  in  the  courts  of  justice  and  public  assemblies, 
Sparta  was  receiving  subsidies  for  the  war  from  Tissa- 
phernes,  the  Persian  lieutenant  in  Caria.  Every  disaster 
"  was  now  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  democracy  ;  and  the 
oligarchical  faction,  whose  secret  intrigues  had  been  long 
preparing  the  way  for  such  a  revolution,  availed  themselves 
of  the  absence  of  those  sturdy  burghers  who  were  serving 
in  the  fleet,  and  of  the  utter  despair  of  the  multitude,  to 
D  overthrow  the  existing  constitution.  The  supreme  au- 
thority was  vested  in  an  oligarchical  council  of  400,  by 
whom  the  number  of  citizens  allowed  to  be  present  at  the 
popular  assemblies  was  limited  to  5,000.  As  the  election 
and  convocation  of  these  representatives  was  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  will  of  the  council,  the  authority  of  the 
people  became  merely  nominal,  whilst  that  of  the  oligarchy 
was  unlimited.  By  the  advice,  however,  of  ThrasybQlus, 
the  men  who  were  serving  on  board  the  fleet  stationed  off 
Samos,  plod^d  themselves  to  support  the  democracy,  and 
recalled  Alcibiados,  who  persuaded  Tissaphernes  to  re- 
nounce the  league  with  Sparta.  It  was  with  difficulty  that 


299,  300.  §  66.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  149 

the   general   restrained    his  army  from   marching   upon  (298) 
Athens  ;  but  such  a  measure  was  rendered  unnecessary  by  A 
the  overthrow  of  the  oligarchical  faction,  after  a  reign  of 
four  months,  in  consequence  of  a  suspicion  that  they  had 
been  engaged  in  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  Sparta. 
The  ancient  senate   resumed  its  functions;    but  as  the 
government  no  longer  possessed  the  means  of  remunerating 
a  large  number  of  citizens  for  their  attendance  at  the  pop- 
ular assemblies,  the  supreme  authority  still  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  5,000. 

ALCIBIADES  A  SECOND  TIME  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,  295 
411-407. — The  Spartan  fleet,  under  Mindarus,  which  had  B 
sailed  for  the  Hellespont  in  order  to  join  Pharnabazus, 
satrap  of  Bithynia,  was  twice  defeated  in  the  neighbor, 
hood  of  Abydos  (off  Kvvog  ("j/u«)>  and  annihilated  off 
CYZICUS  by  Alcibiades  in  410.  After  subduing  the  coasts 
of  the  Hellespont  and  Propontis,  and  taking  Chalcedon 
and  Byzantium,  Alcibiades  returned  in  triumph  to  Athens 
(407),  where  he  revived  the  celebration  of  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries,  but  was  soon  deprived  of  his  unlimited  com- 
mand, in  consequence  of  the  defeat,  during  his  absence,  of 
his  lieutenant  Antiochus  by  Lysander  (near  Notium). 
Alcibiades  retired  to  the  Thracian  Chersonese ;  and  ten  c 
generals,  of  whom  Conon  was  one,  were  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  At  Sparta,  also,  there  was  a  change  of  com- 
manders-in- chief.  Lysander  was  succeeded  as  Nauarch 
by  Callicratidas,  who,  with  a  superior  force,  blockaded 
Conon  in  the  harbor  of  Mitylene,  but  was  defeated  by  a 
newly-equipped  Athenian  fleet  off  the  Arginusian  islands, 
and  lost  his  own  life  in  the  engagement. 

Of  the. ten  Athenian  generals,  eight  were  condemned  to  death  for 
having  neglected  to  save  the  shipwrecked  seamen  after  a  storm,  and 
to  collect  the  bodieo  of  those  who  were  drowned.  Six  of  them  were 
executed,  and  the  remaining  two  banished. 

Lysander,  being  again  appointed  admiral  of  the  Spartan  300 
fleet,  annihilated  that  of  Athens  at  jEgospotamos  (opoo-  D 
site  to  Lampsacus),  in  405.     Of  the  whole  force  only  nine 
ships  were  saved,  with  which  Conon  effected  his  escane  to 
Cyprus.     He  also  subjugated  all  the  allies  of  the  Athe- 
nians, except  Samos,  introduced  aristocratic  constitutions 
with  Spartan  magistrates  (Harmostoe),  and  blockaded  the 
Piraeus ;  whilst  Athens  was  beleaguered,  at  the  same  time. 


150  EUROPE. GREECE.          [301,  302.    §  67. 

(300;  on  the  land  side  by  the  garrison  of  Decelea,  under  Agis, 
A  and  a  Spartan  army,  under  Pausanias.  After  a  siege  of 
four  months,  Athens  was  compelled  by  famine  to  capitu- 
late, deliver  up  her  fleet  (except  twelve  ships),  dismantle 
the  long  walls  and  the  fortifications  of  Piraeus ;  recall  her 
banished  citizens,  receive  an  aristocratic  constitution,  en- 
gage to  furnish  assistance  to  the  Spartans  in  all  their  wars, 
and  place  her  armies  under  the  command  of  a  Spartan 
general-in-chief.  With  the  fall  of  Athens  perished  also 
the  democratic  principle  ;  and  for  a  long  period  we  hear  no 
more  of  the  struggles  between  the  aristocratic  and  popular 
parties. 
i 

§  67.   The  Hegemony  of  Sparta. 

301  As  many  of  the  Athenian  allies  during,  and  in  conse- 
B  quence  of,  the  war,  had  placed  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Sparta  (an  example  which  Athens  herself  was 
obliged  to  follow,  now  that  peace  was  established),  the 
whole  of  Hellas  was  in  effect  subject  to  an  authority, 
which  was  soon  found  to  be  as  odious  as  it  was  oppressive, 
on  account  of  the  favor  shown  to  a  despotic  oligarchy,  as 
well  as  the  establishment  of  garrisons  and  Harmosts  in  all 
those  places  which  had  formerly  been  in  alliance  with 
Athens  ;  and  also  on  account  of  the  extortion  practised  by 

c  the  Spartan  government.  Those  states,  especially  Thebes 
and  Corinth,  which  had  taken  a  part  in  the  war  simply 
with  the  view  of  crushing  the  dangerous  power  of  Athens, 
had  never  intended  that  Sparta  should  acquire  through 
their  exertions  a  decided  preponderance  in  Greece.  When, 
therefore,  the  demand  of  the  Thebans,  that  Athens  should 
be  demolished,  was  rejected  by  Sparta,  on  the  ground  of  her 
intending  to  retain  it  under  her  own  influence,  as  a  barrier 
against  Bceotia,  they  so  far  changed  their  political  creed 
as  to  advocate  the  restoration  of  Athenian  democracy  and 
independence,  which  had  previously  been  the  objects  of 
their  bitterest  hatred. 

302  1.  THE    SUPREMACY    OF    THE    THIRTY    AT    ATHENS, 
D  404 — 403. — A  change  in  the  constitution  was  effected  by 

the  election,  at  the  instance  of  Lysandcr,  of  thirty  men,  all 
taken  from  the  former  body  of  400,  and  invested,  accord- 
ing to  the  practice  of  antiquity,  with  supreme  power  during 
the  continuance  of  their  office.  As  soon  as  these  persons 


303,  304.  §  67.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  151 

considered  their  authority  firmly  established  by  the  admis-  (302? 
sion  into  the  acropolis  of  a  Spartan  garrison,  and  the  dis-  A 
arming  of  all  citizens,  except  3000  who  were  known  to 
be  oligurchically  inclined,  there  followed  a  number  of  im- 
peachments, executions  (1400?  it  is  said),  and  banish- 
ments, at  the  instigation  principally  of  one  Critias,  a  rene- 
gade disciple  of  Socrates.  One  of  their  own  number, 
Theramenes,  who  had  been  the  first  to  suggest  more  hu- 
mane measures,  was  condemned  to  death,  and  compelled  to 
drink  poison  in  prison.  Alcibiades,  having  also  become 
an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  Spartans,  was  attacked  and 
slain  in  Phrygia  by  Pharnabazus,  at  the  instance  of  Ly- 
eander.  Happily  ibr  Athens,  the  Spartans  and  Thebans  B 
were  now  at  variance,  and  Thebes  received  the  Athenian 
exiles,  notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of  the  Spartans. 
Under  the  command  ofThrasybulus,  these  exiles  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  frontier  fortress  of  Phyle,  and, 
having  overthrown  the  troops  of  the  oligarchs,  took  pos- 
session also  of  Piraeus,  where  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which 
the  Thirty  were  defeated,  and  Critias  lost  his  life.  The 
places  of  the  Thirty,  most  of  whom  had  fled  to  Eleusis, 
were  supplied  by  ten  oligarchs  (one  from  each  Phyle),  who 
were  supported  by  Lysander,  and  manifested  a  disposition 
to  reign  as  despotically  as  their  predecessors.  But  the  c 
Spartan  king  Pausanias,  being  jealous  of  the  reputation  of 
Lysander,  now  entered  into  a  compact  with  Thrasybulus; 
in  consequence  of  which  both  the  Thirty  and  the  Ten  were 
set  aside,  a  general  amnesty  proclaimed  (from  which,  how- 
ever, the  Thirty  were  excluded),  and,  in  place  of  the  de- 
generate democracy,  the  laws  of  Solon  were  restored  in 
all  their  purity,  with  such  modifications  as  a  commission 
appointed  for  that  purpose  should  deem  necessary  to  meet 
the  wants  of  more  modern  times. 

2.  WAR  OF  THE  SPARTANS  WITH  THE  PERSIANS. — At  303 
first  for  the  support  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  and  afterwards  D 
for  the  liberation  and  protection  of  the  Greeks  in  Asia 
Minor  (see  90,  p.  56). 

3.  THE  CORINTHIAN  WAR,  394 — 387.— For  the  pur- 304 
pose  of  rendering  abortive  the  plans  of  Agesilaus  against 
the  Persian  empire,  the  Persian  satrap  Tithraustes,  suc- 
cessor of  Tissaphernes,  availing  himself  of  the  universal 
discontent,  succeeded,  by  means  of  bribery,  in  persuading 


152  EUROPE. GREECE.         [304.  §67. 

(304)  the  democrats  in  Thebes,  Corinth,  and  Argos,  to  promote 

A  a  war  with  Sparta ;  the  Athenians,  although  they  had  re- 
ceived no  subsidy  from  Persia,  declaring  themselves  ready 
to  join  the  confederacy.  That  there  might  be  a  pretext 
for  the  war,  the  Thebans  incited  the  Opuntian  Locrians  to 
make  a  predatory  incursion  into  the  territory  of  Phocis, 
and  supported  them  in  their  undertaking.  The  Phocians 
applied  for  aid  to  the  Lacedaemonians;  and  Lysander, 
having  joined  their  army  in  Bceotia,  fell  in  a  skirmish 
under  the  walls  of  Haliartus.  As  the  confederation 
against  the  unpopular  Hegemony  of  Sparta  was  rapidly 

B  extending  itself,  Agesilaus  was  recalled  from  Asia.  Mean- 
while the  Lacedaemonians  had  obtained  a  victory  over  the 
confederates,  who  had  drawn  together  their  forces  at 
Corinth  for  the  puj^ose  of  enabling  the  wavering  Pelo- 
ponnesians  to  liberate  themselves  from  the  Spartan  yoke ; 
but  their  fleet  was  annihilated  by  that  of  Persia,  under  the 
command  of  the  Athenian  exile  Conon  (off  Cnidus,  in 
394) ;  in  consequence  of  which  almost  all  the  maritime 

c  powers  joined  Pharnabazus  and  Conon.  Agesilaus,  con- 
cealing this  disaster  from  his  army,  traversed  Thrace  with- 
out sustaining  any  considerable  interruption  on  the  part  of 
the  allies,  and  obtained  a  victory  at  Co  rone  a,  whither  the 
allies  had  detached  only  a  portion  of  the  army  which  they 
had  assembled  at  Corinth.  Conon  and  Pharnabazus,  having 
expelled  the  Spartan  Harmosts  from  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  islands,  sailed  for  Greece,  and  ravaged 
the  coasts  of  Laconia.  By  means  of  Persian  gold,  Conon 
was  enabled  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Athens,  and  to  restore 
for  a  short  time  to  his  native  city  the  maritime  supremacy 
which  had  been  lost  by  Sparta  and  abandoned  by  the 

D  Persians.  To  withdraw  the  Persians  from  their  alliance 
with  Athens,  the  Spartans  sent  their  Nauarch  Antalcidas  to 
the  Persian  court  with  proposals  of  peace,  engaging  to 
leave  the  Persian  monarch  in  possession  of  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent, provided  the  islands  and  other  Greek  states  were 
permitted  to  be  independent.  On  these  terms,  the  PEACE 
OF  ANTALCIDAS,  as  it  was  called,  was  concluded  in  the  year 
387 ;  by  means  of  which  Sparta  obtained  the  dissolution 
of  every  kind  of  supremacy  exercised  by  one  Grecian 
city  over  others  [e.  g.  the  Thebans  over  the  Boeotian 
cities]. 


305,  306.  §  68.]       EUROPE.— GREECE.  153 

In  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which  had  been  assigned  to  king  Arta-  A 
xerxes  II.,  king  Euagoras  maintained  himself  in  Salamis ;  and  the 
Athenians  continued  to  hold  Leninos,  Imbros,  and    Scyros,  which 
they  had  taken  in  the  Persian  war. 

4.  THE  OLYNTHIAN  WAR  (383 — 379.) — Olynthus  having  induced  305 
several  Greek  and  Macedonian  cities  in  Chalcidice  and  Thrace  to 
form  a  confederacy,  into  which  she  was  endeavoring  to  force  the  re- 
cusant cities  of  Acanthus  and  Apollonia,  the  Spartans  sent  an  army 
into  that  country ;  and  after  carrying  on  the  war  for  three  years  (during 
which  they  sustained  considerable  losses),  compelled  the  Olynthians 
to  abandon  their  conquests,  and  join  the  Spartan  Symmachia,  on 
condition  of  retaining  their  independence. 

§  68.   The  War  between  Thebes  and  Sparta. 

(378—362.) 

In  Thebes,  where  the  oligarchical  and  democratical  par-  306 
ties  were  at  that  time  equally  balanced,  there  stood  at  the  B 
head  of  affairs,  as  Polemarchs,  in  the  year  383,  the  de- 
mocrat Ismenias,  and  the  oligarch  Leontiades.  In  order 
to  annihilate  the  democracy,  the  latter  of  these  leaders 
persuaded  the  Spartan  general  Phcebidas,  who  had  en- 
camped in  the  vicinity  of  Thebes,  on  his  march  to  Olynthus, 
to  attack  the  city  in  time  of  peace,  and  take  possession  of  the 
Cadmea  [or  citadel  of  Thebes],  which  Leontiades  was  willing 
to  surrender  into  his  hands.  Ismenias  was  put  to  death  ;  and 
the  rest  of  the  democrats,  among  whom  was  Pelopidas,  fled 
to  Athens,  where  they  found  the  same  hospitality  which  the 
fugitive  Athenian  democrats  had  experienced  from  the 
Thebans  twenty  years  before.  Pelopidas,  having  called  c 
on  his  companions  in  exile  to  assist  him  in  delivering  their 
native  city  from  the  dominion  of  'the  aristocrats  and 
Spartans,  twelve  conspirators  entered  Thebes  in  disguise, 
and  assassinated  the  leaders  of  the  aristocratic  party  during 
the  celebration  of  a  festival ;  Leontiades  being  put  to 
death  in  his  own  house  by  his  rival  Pelopidas.  The 
Spartan  garrison  in  the  citadel  were  compelled,  by  want 
of  provisions,  to  capitulate,  on  condition  of  being  allowed 
free  egress ;  and  the  democratic  ascendency  was  re-esta- 
blished. Soon  afterwards  the  Spartan  kings  Cleombrotus  D 
and  Agesilaus  appeared  in  Boeotia  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
which  made  repeated  incursions  into  the  Theban  territory, 
but  with  so  little  success,  that  the  Spartans  were  advised 
by  their  confederates  to  try  their  fortune  by  sea.  Here, 
however,  the  Spartans  found  themselves  opposed  by  an 
Athenian  force  far  superior  to  their  own  (the  Athenians 


154  EUROPE. GREECE.  [307.    §68. 

(306)  having  succeeded  in  forming,  on  equitable  terms,  a  new 
A  Symmachia  of  seventy  cities).  Two  victories,  gained  by 
the  Athenians  (at  Naxos,  under  the  command  of  Chabrias, 
and  off  the  promontory  of  Leucadia,  under  Timotheus, 
the  son  of  Conon),  annihilated  the  Spartan  fleet,  and  se- 
cured the  adherence  of  those  maritime  powers  which  had 
been  previously  wavering.  Having  thus  established  her 
authority  over  the  maritime  states,  Athens  now  sought  to 
secure  it  by  a  general  peace,  which  the  Thebans  refused  to 
recognize,  because  they  were  not  permitted  to  sign  the 
B  treaty  in  the  name  of  the  Boeotians.  In  consequence  of 
this  refusal,  Bceotia  was  again  invaded  by  Cleombrotus, 
who  was  defeated  and  slain  byEpaminondas  (who  had 
concentrated  all  his  strength  against  the  wing  command- 
ed by  the  king),  and  the  sacred  band  of  Pel  op  id  as, 
on  the  plain  of  Leuctra,  in  371.  This  defeat  of  the 
Spartans  having  hastened  the  defection  of  their  allies  in 
Peloponnesus,  the  Thebans,  in  the  hope  of  promoting  this 
movement,  and  raising  a  supremacy  of  their  own  on  the 
ruins  of  Sparta,  invaded  Peloponnesus,  and,  in  conjunction 
c  with  the  Arcadians,  Argives,  and  Eleans,  prepared  to  at- 
tack Sparta  itself.  Their  cavalry  had  already  advanced  as 
far  as  the  Hippodrome,  when  the  unexpected  opposition 
which  they  encountered,  in  addition  to  the  want  of  pro- 
visions and  unfavorable  season  of  the  year,  compelled 
them  to  abandon  the  attempt,  in  order  that  their  entire 
force  might  be  available  (according  to  the  terms  of  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas),  for  the  re-establishment  of  Messenian 
independence.  The  newly-built  cities  of  Messene  and 
Megalopolis  were  intended  to  form  with  Tegea  and  Argos 
a  chain  of  fortresses,  sufficient  to  restrain  the  Spartans 
from  any  further  encroachments  on  Peloponnesus ;  but  on 
the  advance  of  the  Athenians,  who  were  unwilling  that 
either  Sparta  or  Thebes  should  become  too  powerful,  the 
Theban  army  was  compelled  to  retire. 

D  A  second  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  had  no  effect  beyond  securing 
the  accession  of  Sicyon,  an  ally  it  is  true  of  some  importance  ;  and  a 
third  ended  in  the  temporary  subjection  of  Achaia. 

307  In  the  north  the  Thebans  undertook  three  several  ex- 
peditions (368 — 364)  against  Alexander,  the  ferocious 
tyrant  of  Pherse,  for  the  purpose  of  delivering  the  Thes- 
salians.  In  the  first  campaign  their  leader  Pelopidas  was 


308.    §69.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.  155 

made  prisoner,  but  was  rescued  in  the  second  by  Epami-  (307) 
nondas,  and  in  the  third  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory  at  A 
CYNOSCEPHALE.  The  Thebans  exerted  themselves  man- 
fully to  avenge  the  death  of  their  beloved  leader,  and 
•compelled  the  tyrant  to  conclude  a  humiliating  peace. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Pelopidas,  a  fourth  campaign  in 
Peloponnesus  was  undertaken  by  Epaminondas,  in  con- 
sequence of  dissensions  among  the  Arcadians.  Their 
chief  magistrates  had  begun  to  employ  the  treasures  of  the 
temple  at  Olympia  for  the  purpose  of  paying  their 
mercenary  troops ;  and  when  a  portion  of  the  Arcadians, 
among  whom  the  Mantineans  were  most  forward,  pro- 
tested against  this  dishonest  practice,  had  applied  for 
assistance  to  the  Thebans.  After  a  second  unsuccessful  B 
attempt  on  Sparta,  Epaminondas  fell  in  the  battle  of 
MANTINEA,  where  his  troops  were  victorious  (362).  In 
the  confusion  consequent  on  the  death  of  their  leader,  the 
Thebans  made  so  little  use  of  their  victory,  that  both 
parties  erected  trophies.  The  Greek  states  were  now  so 
thoroughly  exhausted,  that  they  were  compelled  to  con- 
clude a  peace,  to  which  Sparta  for  a  long  time  refused  to 
accede,  on  account  of  her  unwillingness  to  recognize  the 
independence  of  Messenia.  Agesilaus  died  as  he  was 
returning  from  an  expedition  into  Egypt,  undertaken  for 
the  purpose  of  putting  down  an  insurrection  against  the 
Persians. 

$  69.   Tlie  War  of  the  Confederates  against  Athens. 
(357—355.) 

The  exaction  of  a  larger  amount  of  tribute  from  the  308 
allies  provoked  the  most  powerful  among  them,  CHIOS,  c 
RHODES,  Cos,  and  BYZANTIUM  (supported  by  the  Carian 
king  Mausolus  II.),  to  renounce  their  allegiance  to  Athens. 
After  a  struggle,  which  lasted  three  years,  the  Athenians 
(who  after  the  death  of.Chabrias  had  been  commanded  by 
Iphicrates  and  Timotheus),  when  they  found  themselves 
threatened  also  with  war  by  Artaxerxes  III.,  (against 
whom  Chares  had  supported  the  revolted  satrap  Arta- 
bazus,)  and  saw  Philip  of  Macedonia  advancing  in  his 
career  of  victory,  were  compelled  to  recognize  the  inde- 
pendence of  their  revolted  allies,  and  remit  the  tribute. 
Thus  their  newly  established  (since  377)  naval  supre- 


156  EUROPE. GREECE.    [309,  310.  §  70. 

(308)  macy  was  a  second  time  annihilated,  and  Greece  lost  the 
A  assistance  of  the  only  state  which  could  have  protected 
her  liberties. 


§  70.   The  Phocian  or  Sacred  War. 
(355—346.) 

309  CAUSES. — Many  years  before  the  breaking  out  of  this 
war,  the  Phocians  had  been  sentenced  by  the   Amphic- 
tyonic  council  at  Delphi  to  pay  a  pecuniary  mulct,  as  a 
punishment    for    having  occupied  a  tract  of  land    near 

sCirrha,  belonging  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 
None  however  had  ventured  to  enforce  the  sentence,  until 
the  Thebans,  who  viewed  the  Phocians  in  the  light  of 
enemies,  as  being  allies  of  the  subjugated  Boeotian  states, 
persuaded  the  Amphictyons  to  demand  payment  of  the 
fine.  The  Phocians,  in  conjunction  with  the  Spartans, 
who  had  also  been  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  for  their 
occupation  of  the  Cadmea,  now  took  forcible  possession 
of  the. temple  at  Delphi,  the  superintendence  and  guardian- 
ship of  which  had  formerly  been  wrested  from  them  by 
the  Delphians,  and,  as  soon  as  war  was  declared  against 
them  by  the  Amphictyons,  applied  the  treasures  of  the 

c  temple  to  the  payment  of  hired  troops.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Thebans  were  joined  by  the  Locrians,  and  almost 
all  the  nations  of  northern  Greece. 

310  Under  the  command  of  their  general  Philomel  us,  the 
Phocians  made  head  against  the  Locrians  and  Thessalians, 
but  were  defeated  by  the  Thebans  in  an  engagement  in 
which   Philomelus,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  threw  himself  headlong  from  a  rock.     His  brother 
and  successor  Onomarchus,  was  enabled  to  continue  the 
war  by  means  of  fresh  funds  drawn  from  the  treasury  at 

D  Delphi.  The  principal  theatre  of  hostilities  was  now 
Thessaly,  the  Phocians  having  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
tyrants  of  Pherae,  the  ancient  enemies  of  Thessaly,  and 
the  Thessalians  on  their  part  having  applied  for  assistance 
to  Philip  king  of  Macedonia.  After  many  vicissitudes, 
the  Phocians  were  at  length  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
Thessalian  cavalry  and  Macedonian  tactics ;  Onomarchus 
was  slain  in  attempting  to  escape,  and  the  prisoners  were 
thrown  into  the  sea.  The  treasures  of  the  temple  how- 


311,  312.    §71.]         EUROPE. — GREECE.  157 

ever  were  not  yet  exhausted,  and  hostilities  were  still  (310) 
carried  on  against  the  Thebans,  by  the  Phocians,  under  A 
Phayllus,  the  brother  of  their  two  former  leaders,  un- 
successfully at  first ;  but  subsequently  with  such  decided 
advantage,  that  the  Thebans  were  compelled  to  call  in 
Philip  II.  of  Macedonia.  This  crafty  monarch  so  com- 
pletely deceived  the  Phocians,  who  had  also  applied  to 
him  for  assistance,  that  many  of  the  Phocian  cities 
voluntarily  placed  themselves  at  his  disposal,  and  others 
were  reduced  with  very  little  difficulty.  By  a  decree  of  B 
the  Amphictyonic  council  (pronounced,  it  would  seem, 
only  by  the  Thebans,  Locrians,  and  the  Thessalian  tribes), 
the  Phocian  cities  were  deprived  of  their  walls,  the  in- 
habitants dispersed,  their  arms  and  horses  taken  from 
them,  restitution  of  the  Delphic  treasure  enforced,  and  the 
two  votes  of  the  Phocians  in  the  Amphictyonic  council 
given  to  Philip,  who  was  also,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Thessalians  and  Thebans,  charged  with  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  Pythian  games. 

§  71.   The  War  against  Philip  II.  of  Macedonia. 

1.  ON  THE  MACEDONIAN  COAST.  311 
In  order  to  obtain  possession  of  the  entire  coast  of  his  c 

country,  a  portion  of  which  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the 
Athenians,  Philip,  as  long  ago  as  the  war  of  the  con- 
federates, had  captured  Amphipolis  and  Pydna.  Potidaea, 
which  fell  into  his  hands  at  the  same  time,  was  given  up 
to  the  Olynthians,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  an  alliance 
between  Athens  and  Olynthus,  the  most  powerful  city  of 
the  Chalcidic  peninsula. 

2.  IN  THESSALY.  312 
The  first  pretext  which  Philip  found  for  interfering  in 

the  affairs  of  Greece,  was  an  application  of  the  Thessa- 
lians for  aid  against  the  tyrants  of  Pherae.  Philip  com-  D 
plied  with  this  request,  so  far  as  to  co-operate  with  the 
Thessalian  cities  in  their  attempts  to  recover  their  freedom, 
but  permitted  the  tyrants  to  remain,  that  there  might  still 
be  a  necessity  for  his  assistance.  The  Phocians  having 
formed  an  alliance  with  these  tyrants,  Philip  occupied 
Thessaly,  successfully  resisted  an  attack  of  the  Phocians 
under  Onomarchus,  held  the  places  which  he  had  captured, 
and  at  a  later  period,  after  the  ruin  of  the  Phocians,  and 


158  EUROPE. GREECE.          [313.314.    §71. 

(312)  the  consequent  expulsion  of  the  tyrants,  treated  the  coun- 
•A  try  in  every  respect  as  a  Macedonian  province  (343). 

After  his  victories  over  the  tyrants  and  the  Phocians,  Philip,  unable 
any  longer  to  resist  the  importunity  with  which  his  allies,  the  Thes- 
salians  and  Thebans,  urged  him  to  annihilate  the  Phocians,  advanced 
for  that  purpose  as  far  as  Thermopylae  ;  but  finding  the  pass  occupied 
by  an  Athenian  army,  he  avoided  a  battle,  contenting  himself  with 
having  found  an  excuse  for  suffering  the  Phocians  to  remain,  that  his 
friends  might  still  stand  in  need  of  his  assistance. 

313  3.  ON  THE  COASTS  OF  MACEDONIA  AND  THRACE. 

B  Allowing  the  parties  in  Greece  to  wear  out  one  another, 
Philip  directed  his  chief  attention  to  the  conquest  of  the 
Grecian  maritime  cities  on  the  Thracian  coast  from  By- 
zantium to  the  borders  of  Macedonia,  and  to  the  creation 
of  a  Macedonian  navy.  The  most  obstinate  resistance 
was  offered  by  the  powerful  city  of  Olynthus,  but  after 
the  defeat  of  the  weak  and  ill-appointed  force  sent  out 
from  Athens  to  its  assistance  at  the  instance  of  Demos- 
thenes, the  city  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  Philip 
(348),  who  demolished  it  with  many  others,  amusing  the 
Athenians  meanwhile,  through  the  agency  of  the  bribed 
orator  ^Eschines,  with  proposals  for  the  conclusion  of  a 

c  peace.  It  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  Phocian  war 
(comp.  §  70),  and  after  Philip  had  effected  a  landing  in 
Laconia,  and  compelled  the  Lacedaemonians  to  abandon 
their  design  of  reconquering  Messenia,  that  he  recom- 
menced his  plans  of  conquest  on  the  Thracian  coast  with 
the  blockade  of  Perinthus  and  Byzantium  (341). 
The  capture  of  both  these  cities  was  however  prevented 
by  the  arrival  of  an  Athenian  fleet  under  the  command  of 
Phocion  (341). 

314  4.  THE  SACRED  WAR  AGAINST  AMPHISSA  (339). 

D  That  he  might  have  a  fresh  excuse  for  marching  an 
army  into  Greece,  Philip  persuaded  the  Amphictyons 
(through  his  agent  ^Eischines),  to  impose  a  fine  on  the 
Locrians  of  Amphissa  for  an  alleged  desecration  in 
ancient  times  of  a  piece  of  ground  belonging  to  the  temple 
at  Delphi,  and  to  intrust  him  with  the  execution  of  their 
sentence.  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement,  Philip 
entered  Greece  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  war  (by  what  means  does  not  distinctly 
appear).  The  occupation  however  of  Elatea,  the  key  of 


315 317.    §71.]          EUROPE. GREECE.  159 

Bceotiii,  plainly  indicated  that  he  had  ulterior  objects  in  A 
view. 

5.    THE  DECISIVE  STRUGGLE  IN  BCEOTIA  (338). 

When  the  astounding  intelligence  of  the  occupation  of  315 
Elatea  reached  Athens,  none  but  Demosthenes  had  the 
courage  to  propose  the  equipment  of  a  fleet  and  a  land 
force.  Proceeding  to  Thebes,  he  called  on  the  govern- 
ment to  form  an  alliance  with  Athens,  and  pleaded  the 
cause  of  his  country  so  eloquently,  that  the  Macedonian 
party  and  the  orator  Python  (who  had  been  bribed  by 
Philip),  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  opposition. 
Several  other  states  also  joined  the  confederacy,  but  the  B 
allied  army  (the  Athenians  were  commanded  by  Chares 
and  Lysicles),  after  two  successful  engagements,  was  at 
length  overmatched  by  the  Macedonian  phalanx  (338) 
near  Chaeronea,  where  the  young  Alexander  extermi- 
nated the  sacred  band  of  the  Thebans,  and  thus  decided 
the  fortune  of  the  day.  In  the  first  moment  of  alarm 
Thebes  surrendered  to  the  enemy,  and  was  compelled  to 
receive  a  Macedonian  garrison  ;  Athens,  which  still  held 
out,  was  enabled  to  make  terms  with  the  invader,  whilst 
the  smaller  states  hastened  to  purchase  his  forbearance ; 
and  Philip,  at  a  great  national  assembly  of  the  Greeks  held 
at  Corinth,  was  elected  generalissimo  of  their  armies 
against  the  Persians. 

§  72.  Religion,  Literature,  #c.  of  the  Greeks. 

The   erroneous   notion  of  antiquity,  that  Greek  civilization  was  316 
derived  from  Egypt,  had  its  origin  partly  in  the  assertions  of  the  c 
priests,  who   represented   the   gods   of  Greece    as  descended  from 
those  of  Egypt,  in  order  that  they  might  be  themselves  considered 
the  instructors  of  the  Greeks,  and  partly  from  the  propensity  of  the 
Greeks  to  give  Grecian  names  to  foreign  divinities.     There  seems 
to  have  been  no  intimate  connection  between  the  two  countries  until 
the  reigns  of  Psammetichus  and  Amasis,  nor  do  we  find  in  Greece 
the   slightest  vestige  of  hieroglyphics,  of  Egyptian  arts,  or  of  the 
Egyptian  race. 

RELIGION.      The  religion  of  the  Greeks  consisted  ori-  317 
ginally  in  the  worship  of  natural  objects  and  influences ;  D 
but  by  degrees  they  began  to  represent  the  gods  as  sentient 
beings,  subject  to  human  passions,  and  engaged  in  the  same 
pursuits  and  occupations  as  the  inhabitants  of  earth.  This 
prosopoposia,  which  in  a  great  measure  owed  its  existence 


160  EUROPE. GREECE.         [318.  §72. 

(317)  to  the  poets  Homer  and  Hesiod,  as  well  as  to  the  artists 
A  of  Greece,  formed  the  popular  religion  ;  whilst  the  ancient 
symbolical  system  existed  almost  exclusively  as  a  priestly 
religion  in  the  mysteries,  i.  e.  in  those  secret  acts  of 
worship  to  which  none  but  the  initiated  were  admitted. 
Yet  even  in  the  midst  of  this  polytheism,  we  find  some 
traces  of  a  belief  in  one  supreme  being ;  as  exhibited  in 
the  notion  of  an  inevitable  fate  («Ia«,  fto7^a),  to  which  the 
gods  themselves  are  subject,  and  of  the  supreme  dominion 
B  of  Zeus.  According  to  popular  belief  the  residence  of 
this  god  was  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Olympus,  which 
pierces  the  brazen  vault  of  heaven  (ovQarog),  the  lower 
peaks  of  the  mountain  being  occupied  by  the  rest  of  the 
gods.  The  various  national  divinities  of  the  different 
tribes  were  amalgamated  at  a  very  early  period  into 
one  body  composed  of  twelve  OLYMPII  or  NATIONAL  DE- 
ITIES. 

318  1.  Zeus  [Jupiter],  the  supreme,  most  powerful,  and  wise  being 
c  (wraroy,  tJi//«aroj. — unriirns),  the  king  and  father  of  gods  and  men, 
watches  over  all  the  concerns  of  mankind,  especially  over  hospitality, 
oaths,  and  the  relief  of  suppliants  (hence  called  Zcvs  {ivios,  ojtwio?, 
Iwffioj,  &c.),  and  holds  in  his  hands,  as  god  of  heaven,  the  aegis,  and 
the  lightning.  Tradition  represents  many  heroes  as  descended  from 
Zeus,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  renown — hence  the  legends 
of  his  numerous  wives  and  children,  and  of  the  jealousy  of  Here  [Juno]. 
To  this  god  of  the  heavens  was  united,  but  not  as  a  being  of  the  same 
rank,  a  goddess  of  the  earth,  named  by  the  Dorians  2.  Here,  and  by 
the  lonians  3.  Demeter  or  Foua,  who  bears  him  Persephone  (that 
is,  the  earth,  rendered  fruitful  by  the  sky,  brings  forth  corn).  This 
daughter,  being  carried  off  by  Pluto,  passes  one  half  of  the  year 
with  her  husband,  the  other  with  her  mother  (i.  e.  the  corn  is  at  first 
concealed  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  then  springs  forth  and  ripens). 
Demeter  herself  teaches  the  art  of  agriculture  to  Triptolemus,  son 
of  the  king  of  Eleusis,  to  whom  she  also  gives  a  code  of  laws — hence 
D  her  feast  is  called  Thesmophoria.  The  gods  of  heaven  and  earth 
are  accompanied  by  the  deities  of  light,  who  were  believed  to  be 
children  of  Zeus  ;  4.  Athene ;  5.  Apolldn ;  6.  Artemis.  ATHENE 
bears  some  relation  to  fire  and  light,  physical  (hence  yXat>i«;i7nj)  as 
well  as  moral — hence  she  is  named  the  goddess  of  understanding  and 
wisdom,  and  in  that  character  springs  from  the  brain  of  Zeus.  She  is 
also  connected  with  the  element  of  water,  whence  her  name  Tritoge- 
neia,  and  the  legend  of  her  contest  with  Poseid6n  [Neptune].  Both 
these  elements,  the  warm  and  the  moist,  are  employed  in  making  the 
earth  bring  forth :  thus  Athene  becomes  the  goddess  of  the  harvest 
and  of  fertility,  and  her  son  is  named  Erichthonius.  She  is  also  the 
goddess  of  war,  and  presides  over  works  of  female  skill.  APOLLON  and 
ARTEMIS,  twin  children  of  Zeus  and  Leto  (i.  e.  darkness),  born  on 
mount  Cythnus  in  Delos,  are  the  deities  of  light,  the  sun  and  moon. 


319.    §72.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  161 

Hence  Apollon  is  called  Phoebus,  and  an  eternal  fire  is  maintained  on  (318) 
his  altar.  Artemis  is  drawn  with  a  torch  and  crescent.  Their  rays  A 
were  compared  to  arrows,  and  for  that  reason  they  were  represented 
also  as  deities  of  the  chase  (hence  'Air.  £*rj/?(5Xoj,  apy«p<Jrof»f).  Apol- 
lon is  not  only  the  god  of  destruction,  but  also  of  healing,  (hence 
iraiwr,  d\c^i«iKOf,  the  father  of  Asclepios).  In  reference  to  the 
effects  of  light,  the  destruction  of  grain  by  smut  ('A*.  ipvOi0tos), 
and  even  by  mice  (E^i«/0ct5j),  is  ascribed  to  Apollon.  He  is  the 
god  of  intellectual,  as  well  as  physical,  light ;  hence  to  him  is  ascribed 
the  gift  of  prophecy,  but  as  a  deliverer  of  oracles  he  is  ambiguous 
(hence  Ao£«aj).  He  is  also  the  god  of  poetical  inspiration,  of  song 
and  music,  and  the  leader  of  the  Muses.  In  this  view  of  the  universe, 
the  elements  of  fire  and  water  have  of  course  their  place.  Thus  B 
Poseidon  (7)  denotes  both  the  sea  and  the  fresh  water  in  the  deep 
recesses  of  earth  ;  and  Hephaistos  [  Vulcan]  (8)  the  terrestrial  fire  (on 
and  in  the  earth),  the  origin  of  which  from  celestial  fire  is  poetically 
represented  by  the  hurling  down  of  Hephaistos  from  heaven  to  earth. 
The  fertility  of  the  vine  on  volcanic  soils  gave  occasion  to  the  fable 
which  connects  Hephaistos  with  wine  as  the  cup-bearer  of  the 
gods ;  and  on  account  of  the  agency  of  fire  in  the  working  of  metals, 
he  is  represented  as  a  blacksmith  famous  for  the  production  of  works 
in  steel  (the  shield  of  Achilles).  9.  Hermes  [Mercury],  perhaps,  ori- 
ginally, a  symbol  of  the  generation  of  animals,  is  known  as  protector 
of  the  herds,  and  especially  of  flocks  of  sheep  ;  and  also  as  messenger 
of  the  gods  and  guardian  of  the  streets  (hence  the  Hermae).  In  an 
intellectual  sense,  he  is  represented  as  the  inventor  of  the  lyre  and 
of  gymnastics,  and  the  protector  of  trade  ;  and  in  the  last  of  these 
characters  is  shrewd,  cunning,  and  even  inclined  to  theft.  10.  Hestia  C 
[  Vesta],  or  the  deified  conception  of  the  hearth,  as  the  centre  of  the 
house,  and  place  of  assemblage  for  the  family.  11.  Ares  [Mars],  or 
the  personification  of  war.  12.  Aphrodite  [Venus],  or  the  personified 
idea  of  love  and  enjoyment ;  a  divinity  borrowed  from  the  Phoeni- 
cians. Different  classes  had  their  respective  deities ;  thus  the  goat- 
herds and  vine-dressers  paid  especial  honor  to  Dionysos  [Bacchus], 
who,  as  god  of  the  Sprin?,  clothes  the  fields  with  flowers,  and  makes 
the  herds  bring  forth  their  young  ;  and,  as  god  of  Autumn,  fills  the 
vats  with  wine,  a  union  of  the  two  legends  respecting  his  birth  (from 
the  thigh  of  Zeus,  and  from  Semele,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus.) 
Hence  he  is  called  Dithyrambus.  In  his  spiritual  character,  he 
appears  as  a  prophet,  as  the  god  of  the  dead  (Zagreus),  and  the  pro- 
tector of  democracy. 

The  inferior  classes  of  deities  were  :  1.  The  Dcemones,  319 
who  were  either  aboriginal  local  divinities ;  deified  natural  D 
objects,  the  gods  of  the  river,  the  mountain,  and  the  forest ; 
or  abstract  ideas  personified,  as  Tv%vi,   Wvxri, "///?»;,  Aidw$, 
#r^u77,  Eigrjvr],   OavctTo?,   tf>d/3o£,  the    Erinnyes,  or  Eume- 
nides,  &c.     2.  The  heroes,  or  mortals  deified  after  death, 
and  termed  demi-gods.     These  were  either  founders  of 
entire  tribes,  who  were  also  believed  to  be  the  sons  of 


162  EUROPE. — GREECE.  [320.    §72. 

(319)  gods,  as  Hercules,  &c.,  or  patrons  of  particular  crafts,  as 

A  Daedalus,  the  hero  of  architects,  &c.     The  notion  of  a  life 

after  death  produced  the  deities  of  the  lower  world,  Pluton 

or  Hades,  and  the  three  Moerge  (Clotho,  Lachesis,  and 

Atrdpos). 

The  worship  of  their  gods  consisted  principally 
in  sacrifices,  which  were  either  offerings  of  prayer  and 
thanksgiving,  or  sin-offerings,  and  were  celebrated  by  the 
priests  either  in  the  open  air,  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  in 
forests  and  groves,  or  in  temples,  especially  on  the  occa- 
sion of  certain  festivals,  such  as  the  great  national  games, 
the  Panathensea,  Thesmophoria,  Eleusinia,  Dionysia,  &c. 
B  The  offerings  were  either  living  victims,  sometimes  single, 
sometimes  in  great  numbers  (Hecatombs),  or  inanimate 
objects,  as  fruits,  wine,  honey,  milk,  frankincense,  &c.,  and 
in  the  earliest  times,  human  victims,  for  which,  however, 
beasts  were  very  soon  substituted.  Their  other  modes  of 
honoring  the  gods  were  by  short  forms  of  prayer,  uttered 
standing  and  with  outstretched  arms,  by  votive  offerings, 
solemn  processions,  and  religious  dances.  Besides  these 
modes  of  propitiating  the  gods  and  turning  away  their 
wrath,  men  believed  also  that  they  could  obtain  revelations 
of  the  Divine  will,  either  immediately  from  the  oracles,  of 
which  the  most  renowned  were  those  of  Zeus  at  Dodona, 
and  of  Apollo  at  Delphi :  or  mediately  through  the  iiQtvg, 
from  the  inspection  of  entrails,  through  the  pavTig,  from 
the  flight  and  song  of  certain  birds,  and  from  atmospheric 
phenomena,  and  through  the  ovftQOJioiog,  from  dreams. 
320  2.  CoNSTiTtrrioN. 

c      For  the  constitution  of  the  heroic  age  see  §  55 ;  and  for 
that  of  the  second  period,  §  58. 

In  the  third  period  both  the  external  and  internal  relations 
of  Greece  received  from  the  Persian  wars  a  character  which 
they  retained  during  the  succeeding  age.  The  line  of  demar- 
cation between  Greeks  and  barbarians  was  more  distinctly 
traced,  the  necessity  for  adopting  common  measures  of  de- 
fence produced  offensive  and  defensive  alliances,and  in  place 
of  the  old  loose  unions,  more  extended  Hegemonies  were  in- 
troduced ;  the  effect  of  whicn  was,  that  in  all  political  move- 
ments each  nation  bore  a  part  either  voluntarily,  or  by  com- 
pulsion. Jn  their  internal  policy  great  changes  were  pro- 
duced by  the  almost  contemporaneous  expulsion  of  tyrants 


321,  32-2.  §  72.]      EUROPE. — GREECE.  163 

from  the  different  states.  At  Athens  the  constitution  of  (320) 
Solon  was  restored  (with  a  few  alterations  by  Clisthenes,  A 
see  §  61,  and  Aristides,  §  63.  In  many  states  (as  Argos, 
Mantinea,  Elis,  Megara,  Corinth,  Syracuse,  &c.)  demo- 
cracy was  for  the  first  time  introduced ;  in  others,  the  ar- 
istocracy degenerated  into  oligarchy,  as,  for  example,  in 
Sparta  and  Thebes,  the  two  strongholds  of  the  oligarchical 
system ;  and  also  in  Thessaly,  Corinth,  Sicyon,  &c.  From 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  these  two  forms 
of  government  were  placed  in  a  state  of  antagonism,  which 
not  only  produced  wars  between  different  states,  but  also 
created  civil  disturbances  in  many  of  the  Grecian  cities.  The  B 
oligarchical  system  was  at  its  greatest  height  during  the  He- 
gemony of  Sparta,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  oligarchical  constitutions  being  introduced  by  the  Spar- 
tans wherever  they  had  any  influence  (in  the  western  parts 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  at  Athens,  Elis,  Corinth,  and  Thebes). 
These  constitutions,  however,  lasted  a  very  short  time. 
The  expulsion  from  Thebes  of  the  oligarchical  party  and 
the  Spartan  garrison,  and  still  more  the  battle  of  Leuctra, 
were  the  signal  for  a  general  rising  against  Sparta  ;  and  the 
extension  of  democracy  became,  at  the  same  time,  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  policy  of  Thebes,  which  was  now  strain- 
ing every  nerve  to  obtain  the  Hegemony.  In  the  end,  c 
discord,  cowardice,  treason,  and  supineness  prepared  Greece 
to  receive  the  yoke  of  a  foreign  master. 

3.  LITERATURE.  321 

A.  Poetry. 

Epic  poetry,  and  then  lyric,  first  flourished  in  the  colo- 
nies of  Western  Asia  Minor ;  dramatic  poetry  first  deve- 
loped itself  about  the  year  500,  in  the  mother  country, 
chiefly  at  Athens. 

EPIC  POETRY.     Before  the  days  of  Homer  the  only  322 
poems  of  this  description  were  short  ballads,  descriptive  of  D 
single  deeds  or  adventures.     By  him  the  plan  of  the  epic 
poem  was  fully  developed,  so  as  to  comprise,  in  addition 
to  the  story  of  the  principal  heroes,  the  characters  and  ac- 
tions of  a  large  circle  of  the  most  remarkable  secondary 
personages.     The  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  the   most   perfect 
epic  poems  ever  produced,  were  made  known  to  the  world 
by  the  Rhapsodists,  a  school  of  minstrels  at  Chios,  and  at 
a  later  period  (in  the  time  of  Pisistratus)  were  copied  out 


164  EUROPE.— GREECE.  [323.    §72. 

(322)  and  edited  by  the  Diaskeuastoe  at  Alexandria.     The  so- 

A  called  Homeric  hymns,  employed  by  the  Rhapsodists  as 
introductions  to  their  poetical  recitations,  are,  for  the  most 
•  part,  the  work  of  the  Homeridce.  The  poetry  of  Homer 
produced  a  crowd  of  imitators,  cyclic  poets,  as  they  were 
called  (between  800  and  500),  some  of  whom  sang  the 
other  events  of  the  heroic  age  (for  example,  the  war 
against  Thebes),  whilst  others  wrote  continuations  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey.  Contemporaneously  with  the  minstrel 
school  of  the  Homeridae  at  Chios,  there  flourished  another 
in  Boeotia,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Hesiod  of  Ascra, 

B  Three  of  his  epic  poems  are  still  extant ;  two  of  which  are 
mythological,  viz.,  1,  dtoyoviu,  a  work  of  the  highest  im- 
portance in  a  religious  point  of  view,  as  being  the  standard 
authority  for  all  representations  of  the  gods,  their  pecu- 
liarities, family  connections,  &c. ;  and  2,  the  acrnl?  '//£«- 
xAc'ous  ;  and  one  of  a  didactic  character,  tgya  xal  r^gai. 
323  I.  LYRIC  POETRY,  intended  to  be  sung  with  a  lyre  or 

c  flute  accompaniment,  developed  itself  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, B.  c.,  contemporaneously  with  the  rise  of  republi- 
canism. It  comprehends  a  variety  of  species,  and  many 
different  metres.  The  invention  of  the  elegiac  measure, 
which  differs  very  little  from  the  epic,  is  generally  ascribed 
to  CALLINUS  (about  660),  who,  like  his  contemporary 
TYRT^US,  was  chiefly  famous  for  his  warlike  elegies.  In 
proportion  as  the  lonians,  among  whom  this  style  of  poetry 
flourished,  became  less  warlike  and  more  effeminate,  so 
did  the  elegy  lose  its  political  character,  which  is  feebly 
exhibited  in  the  poems  of  MIMNERMUS,  but  resumes  its 

D  original  strength  in  the  elegies  of  SOLON  at  Athens.  To 
the  elegy  belong,  as  regards  their  contents  and  form,  the 
remains  of  THEOGNIS,  which  consist  of  mere  fragments 
cited  from  his  works  by  other  writers  without  any  regu- 
lar connection.  The  last  of  the  great  elegiac  poets  is 
SIMONIDES  of  Ceos,  whose  elegy  in  honor  of  the  Greeks 
who  fell  at  Marathon,  was  preferred  to  that  of  ^Eschy- 
lus.  The  elegiac  is  also  the  metre  most  commonly 
employed  for  the  Epigram,  perhaps  because  monumental 
inscriptions  (the  most  usual  form  of  epigrams  among  tha 
Greeks)  were  intimately  connected  with  songs  of  lamenta- 
tion. Those  of  the  most  distinguished  epigrammatic  poet 
SIMONIDES  of  Ceos,  were,  in  fact,  principally  inscriptions 


824.    §  72.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.  165 

for  the  tombs  of  the  heroes  who  fell  in  the  Persian  wars.  (323) 
The  custom  observed  at  certain  religious  festivals  of  attack-  A 
ing  one  another  in  scurrilous  lampoons,  called  iambi,  gave 
occasion  to  ARCHILOCHUS  (a  contemporary  of  Callinus)  to 
frame  a  new  species  of  poetry,  which  received  the  name  of 
Iambic.  It  was  distinguished  from  the  epic  and  elegiac, 
not  only  by  its  different  metre,  but  by  a  style  more  nearly 
approaching  to  prose.  The  Lyric  poetry  of  the  Greeks,  in 
its  more  restricted  sense,  is  divided  into  the  JEolic,  which 
was  intended  for  recitation  by  a  single  performer,  with  the 
accompaniment  of  a  stringed  instrument,  and  appropriate 
movements  of  the  body  ;  and  the  Doric,  which  was  sung 
to  the  dancing  of  the  chorus.  The  latter  had  its  strophes,  B 
which  were  often  very  elaborate,  together  with  its  anti- 
strdphes  and  epodes ;  whilst  the  former  had  either  no 
strophes  at  all,  or  only  such  as  were  of  a  very  simple  cha- 
racter, containing  a  few  verses,  all  in  the  same  metre,  and 
uninterrupted  by  epodes.  The  subject  matter  was  also 
different ;  the  choral  lyric  endeavoring  to  bring  before  the 
audience,  by  means  of  the  whole  chorus,  objects  of  public 
and  general  interest,  whilst  the  Molic  gave  expression  to 
individual  feelings  and  opinions.  The  most  distinguished  c 
poets  of  the  ^Eolic  school  were  Lesbians.  ALCJEUS  (about 
600),  and  his  contemporary  SAPPHO,  to  whom  we  may 
also  add  ANACREON.  The  Doric  choral  poetry  developed 
itself  under  ALCMAN  and  STESICHORUS,  and  attained  per- 
fection under  IBYCUS  and  SIMONIDES  (also  elegiac  poets) 
and  especially  under  PINDAR  (522 — 442).  Of  the  various 
styles  of  lyric  poetry,  strictly  so  called',  in  which  Pindar 
distinguished  himself,  nothing  has  reached  us  except  his 
hymns  of  victory  or  Epinlcia,  which  are  well  calculated,  by 
the  richness  of  invention  which  they  display,  the  elegance 
of  their  composition,  and  the  variety  of  form  and  style,  to 
create  a  favorable  opinion  of  the  writer's  poetical  talent. 

c.    DRAMATIC    POETRY. — The    choral    hymns    (Dithy-  324 
rambs),  chanted  at  the  Dionysia,  first  assumed  the  form  of  D 
tragedy,    when   Thespis  (of  Athens,  about   540)    inter- 
mingled with  them  the  representation  (dp«/u«,  enetaodiov} 
of  a  story  or  plot  by  a  single  actor  (viiox§iTqg\  who  was 
separated  from  the  chorus,  and  played  many  parts  succes- 
sively in  the  same  piece.     This  action  or  Epeisodion  was 
made  the  principal  feature  of  the  entertainment  by  ^Eschy- 


166  EUROPE. GREECE.        [325.  §  72. 

(324)  lus  an  Athenian  (525 — 456),  who  added  a  second  actor, 

A  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  the  dramatic  dialogue.  At 
every  dramatic  contest  in  which  he  was  engaged,  yEschylus 
brought  forward  three  tragedies,  which  formed  a  whole, 
and  were  succeeded  by  a  satyric  drama.  In  these  trilogies 
we  find  the  most  striking  myths  dramatically  worked  out 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  excite  the  astonishment  and  delight 
of  the  Greeks,  as  they  became  aware  of  the  part  played  by 
the  gods  in  their  early  history.  SOPHOCLES  (495 — 406), 
introduced  a  third  actor,  and  made  the  action,  even  more 
than  ./Eschylus  had  done,  a  principal  part  of  the  drama,  by 
shortening  the  songs  of  the  chorus ;  his  object  being  to  re- 
present the  feelings  of  the  personages  actually  engaged  in 
the  plot,  rather  than  the  impression  made  by  its  events  on 

B  mere  spectators.  He  also  followed  the  custom  of  intro- 
ducing three  tragedies  and  a  satyric  drama  at  each  repre- 
sentation ;  but  these,  as  far  as  their  subject  matter  was 
concerned,  were  in  fact  not  one  long  poem,  but  four  dis- 
tinct works.  EURIPIDES,  who,  according  to  the  received 
account,  was  born  in  the  island  of  Salamis  on  the  day  of 
the  battle  (more  probably  in  the  year  482,  or  481),  and 
died  a  few  months  before  Sophocles,  introduced  a  twofold 
innovation  as  regarded  the  form  of  the  tragedy.  In  the 
first  place,  the  audience,  by  means  of  a  prologue,  were  in- 
formed of  previous  events  down  to  the  very  moment  at 
which  the  action  of  the  tragedy  begins ;  and  secondly,  the 
knot  of  dramatic  entanglement,  instead  of  being  unravelled, 
was  severed  by  the  appearance  of  a  "  deus  ex  machina.' 

c  The  mythical  traditions  of  antiquity,  in  which  ^Eschylus 
recognized  the  exalted  workings  of  divine  power,  and 
Sophdcles  discovered  matter  for  the  most  profound  re- 
flections on  human  events,  were  treated  by  the  philosophical 
Euripides  almost  as  if  he  desired  to  expose  their  folly,  by 
stripping  his  heroes  of  all  ideal  greatness,  and  representing 
them  with  the  petty  passions  and  weaknesses  of  ordinary 
mortals. 
325  One  degenerate  offspring  of  tragedy  was  the  SATYRIC 

D  DRAMA,  which  formed  a  sort  of  connecting  link  between 
it  and  comedy ;  and  was  generally  introduced,  with  its 
chorus  of  satyrs  and  Silenuses,  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
tragic  trilogy.  Although  this  practice  was  antecedent  to 
jEschylus,  and  retained  its  place  as  long  as  tragedy 


326.    §72.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  16-7 

flourished  at  Athens,  only  one  complete  piece  is  extant,  (325) 
in  the  Cyclops  of  Euripides.  The  OLD  COMEDY,  as  it  is  A 
called,  which  derived  its  origin  from  songs  sung  during  the 
revels  (xo»/tot)  of  the  Dionysia,  was  moulded  into  a  more 
artistical  form  in  the  fifth  century,  B.  c.,  by  the  exertions 
of  Kpicharmus  in  Sicily,  and  Cratinus,  Eup6lis,  and  espe- 
cially ARISTOPHANES,  at  Athens.  The  last  of  these  poets, 
who  flourished  between  427  and  338,  has  left  us  in  his 
comedies  (of  which  eleven  out  of  fifty-four  are  extant)  a 
very  correct  representation  of  Athenian  manners,  couched 
in  bitter  and  often  ribaldrous  satire.  During  the  reign  of  B 
the  thirty  at  Athens  (404)  all  satirical  notice  of  living 
characters,  as  well  as  the  representation  on  the  stage  of 
contemporaneous  events,  was  strictly  prohibited  ;  a  regula- 
tion which  produced  what  is  called  the  Middle  Comedy. 
In  this  species  of  drama  the  poet  exposed,  in  the  form  of 
a  mythic  plot,  the  follies  of  different  ranks  and  classes, 
or  exercised  his  wit  on  the  literary  absurdities  of  the  day. 
B.  Prose.  326 

a.  History.  That  so  intellectual  a  people  as  the  c 
Greeks  remained  for  so  many  centuries  without  feeling 
the  want  of  an  accurate  record  of  their  history,  is  explained 
by  the  fact,  that  between  the  occurrence  of  those  events  of 
the  mythical  age  which  were  celebrated  by  their  epic  poets, 
and  the  breaking  out  of  the  Persian  wars,  no  enterprise 
whatever  was  undertaken  by  the  combined  nations  of 
Greece.  As  hi  epic  and  lyric  poetry  and  philosophy,  so 
also  in  history,  the  first  ground  seems  to  have  been  broken 
by  the  lonians  ;  hence  the  most  ancient  prose  dialect  is 
the  Ionic.  The  compilers  of  history,  antecedent  to  Hero- 
dotus (generally  termed  Logographi),  contented  them- 
selves with  giving  the  results  of  their  geographical  and 
statistical  researches,  especially  in  the  east,  without  any 
attempt  at  arrangement,  or  historical  description.  Hero-  D 
dot  us,  on  the  contrary,  by  interweaving  episodical  notices 
of  oriental  countries,  and  their  inhabitants,  with  his  history 
of  the  great  struggle  between  the  east  and  west,  has  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  an  animated  picture  of  the  two  con- 
tending masses.  Throughout  the  whole  work  we  recog- 
nize also  the  pervading  idea  of  a  just  Providence,  which 
assigns  to  every  man  his  path  of  duty,  and  the  limits  within 
which  it  behooves  him  to  confine  himself;  and  punishes 


168  EUROPE. GREECE.  [327.    §72. 

(326)  with  ruin  and  destruction  the  inordinate  acquisition  of 

A  riches  or  power.  The  first,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
most  complete,  description  of  contemporaneous  events,  is 
that  given  by  Thucydides,  in  his  history  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war, — a  work  unrivalled  for  perspicuity,  truth, 
and  accuracy,  as  well  as  for  the  admirable  delicacy  and 
acuteness  displayed  in  its  delineations  of  character.  His 
successor,  Xenophon,  is  inferior  to  Thucydides  as  a 
descriptive  writer ;  but  there  seems  little  or  no  foundation 
for  the  heavy  charge  brought  against  him  by  modern 
critics,  of  being  intentionally  a  partisan  of  Sparta. 
327  b.  ELOQUENCE. — Although  addresses  to  the  people  were 

B  common  at  a  very  early  period  of  Grecian  history,  as  we 
learn  from  the  speeches  of  Homer's  kings,  eloquence  seems 
to  have  been  cultivated  as  a  political  science  only  at 
Athens.  The  orations  of  P  e  r  I  c  1  e  s  are  especially  worthy 
of  remark,  for  the  extraordinary  depth  and  vigor  of 
thought  which  they  display,  as  well  as  for  the  manner  in 
which  single  events  are  reduced  to  general  principles.  The 
grandeur  of  his  conceptions,  their  ready  adaptation  to 
every  possible  contingency,  and  the  majestic  repose  of  his 
style,  obtained  for  him  the  epithet  of  "  the  Olympian." 

c  The  cultivation  of  rhetoric  as  an  art  originated  with  the 
sophists ;  among  whom  those  of  Hellas  Proper  aimed  prin- 
cipally at  correctness,  whilst  those  of  Sicily  (as  Gordias) 
considered  elegance  of  style  the  chief  excellence  of  an 
oration.  The  union  of  natural  power  (possessed  in  the 
highest  degree  by  Pericles),  with  the  rhetorical  studies  of 
the  sophists,  produced  that  elaborate  eloquence  of  the 
senate  and  the  bar  of  which  we  find  examples  in  the  ten 
Attic  orators.  Among  these,  LYSIAS,  by  his  Epitaphios, 
created  a  new  style  of  eloquence,  viz.,  the  oratory  of 
display,  as  it  has  been  termed  (enidtixuxov  or  naryyvQixov 
yivos),  distinguished  from  all  other  sorts  by  having  no 

D  practical  object.  The  composition  of  these  panegyrical 
orations  was  rendered  more  elaborate,  and  their  style  im- 
proved, by  ISOCRATES,  a  distinguished  teacher  of  eloquence. 
The  powers  of  judicial  and  political  oratory  are  exhibit- 
ed in  their  fullest  development  in  the  contest  between 
jEscniNES,  the  advocate  of  Macedonian  interests  (393 — 
317),  and  his  irreconcilable  adversary  DEMOSTHENES  (385 
— 332),  who  for  fourteen  years  employed  the  art,  which  ho 


328,  329.  §  72.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  169 

had  acquired  with  so  much  labor,  in  resisting  the  aggres-  A 
sions  of  Philip  II. 

c.  PHILOSOPHY  was  first  cultivated  in  the  colonies  of 
western  Asia  Minor  and  Lower  Italy ;  in  the  former,  in  328 
the  Ionic  school  of  Thales,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men, 
whose  reputation  seems  to  have  been  founded  rather  on 
their  practical  activity,  as  statesmen  and  advisers  of  the 
people,  than  on  their  philosophical  speculations;  in  the 
latter,  in  the  Pythagorean  and  Eleatic  schools  (those 
of  Pythagoras  and  Xenophanes).  The  ancient  or  nat- 
ural philosophers  (ol  qpwnxo/),  as  they  were  termed,  were 
succeeded  by  the'  Sophists,  who  taught  principally  the 
art  of  dialectics  invented  by  Zeno  the  Eleatic,  and  its 
application  to  rhetoric.  Their  abuse  of  this  art  was  resist-  B 
ed  by  Socrates  (469 — 399),  who  employed  the  peculiar 
(interrogative)  method  termed  from  him  the  Socratic.  This 
philosopher  endeavored  by  precept  and  example  to  stem 
the  torrent  of  immorality,  and  to  give  men,  by  means  of 
familiar  conversations,  more  just  conceptions  of  themselves, 
their  knowledge,  and  their  duties  (hence  he  is  known  as 
the  founder  of  Ethics).  Notwithstanding,  however,  his 
endeavors  to  promote  the  welfare  of  mankind,  he  was 
held  up  to  ridicule  by  Aristophanes,  in  his  comedy  of  'the 
Clouds,'  as  the  representative  of  the  Sophists ;  and  being 
accused  of  corrupting  the  Athenian  youth,  was  sentenced 
to  drink  poison.  His  doctrines  are  preserved  in  the  c 
writings  of  his  disciples  Xenophon  and  Plato  (429 — 347), 
the  founder  of  the  Academic  school.  For  their  develop- 
ment in  a  scientific  form  we  are  indebted  to  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  (384—322),  the  founder  of  the  Peripa- 
tetic school  (at  the  Lyceum  at  Athens);  by  which  the 
first  outline  of  a  system  of  logic  was  traced,  and  a  philo- 
sophical terminology  created. 

d.  The  earliest  traces  of  MATHEMATICAL  SCIENCE  are  found  in  the  D 
geographical  and  astronomical  labors  of  several  philosophers. 

e.  MEDICINE,  being  closely  connected  with  religion,  was  for  a  long 
time  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  priesthood.     Pythagoras,  indeed, 
made  an  attempt  to  introduce  it  into  ordinary  life  ;  but  this  object 
was  not  fully  attained  until  the  time  of  Hippocrates  (460 — 370), 
the  real  founder  of  the  healing  art. 

4.  ART. 

a.  The  architecture  of  the  Greeks  was  at  first  of  the  329 
••udest  character — colossal  blocks  of  stone,  which  in  the 


170  EUROPE. GREECE.         [330.  §72. 

(329)  most  ancient  times  were  not  even  hewn,  were  piled  on  one 

A  another,  without  mortar,  until  they  formed  massive  walls. 
This  style  was  called  the  Cyclopian.  Vestiges  of  it  may 
still  be  seen  in  the  remains  of  walls  at  Tiryns  and  Argos, 
and  in  the  gate  of  the  lions  at  Mycense,  which  is  set  in  a 
wall  of  this  description.  Our  notices  of  the  sacred  archi- 
tecture of  the  heroic  age  are  few  and  obscure ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  are  fully  acquainted  with  the  arrange- 
ments of  their  palaces  from  the  descriptions  of  Homer 
(e.  g.  that  of  the  palace  of  Odysseus  [  Ulysses]),  and  there 
still  exist  fragments  of  the  treasuries  that  were  con. 

B  nected  with  such  palaces ;  for  instance,  those  of  the 
treasury  of  Atreus  at  Mycense.  The  most  important  ar- 
chitectural monuments  of  antiquity  are  the  temples  of 
the  gods,  in  which  we  discover  the  development  of  the 
Grecian  column,  for  the  most  part  in  two  forms,  the  Doric 
and  Ionic.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  temple  were  the 
Propylsea.  forming  an  entrance  to  the  sacred  inclosure,  by 
which  the  temple  was  surrounded  ;  then  succeeded  colon- 
nades appropriated  to  different  objects  (e.  g.  halls  of  jus- 
tice, gymnasia,  &c.),  and  at  a  still  greater  distance  were 

c  inclosures  for  sports  and  combats,  stadia,  hippodromes, 
theatres,  music-halls  (w&Za),  &c. 

The  most  ancient  of  the  architectural  monuments  still  in 
existence  are  found  in  the  Doric  colonies  in  Sicily  (Selinus 
and  Agrigentum),  in  Magna  Graecia  (at  Psestum),  and  in 
the  Ionic  colonies  of  Asia  Minor  (the  temples  of  Juno  at 
Samos,  and  of  Diana  at  Ephesus).  Those  of  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Grecian  architecture  may  be  seen  at 
Athens  (the  Parthenon,  the  Propylaea,  the  Erechtheum),  at 
Eleusis  (the  temple  of  Demeter),  at  Olympia  (the  temple 
of  Zeus),  and  in  the  Ionic  colonies  of  Asia  Minor  (the 
temples  of  Athene  at  Priene,  and  of  Apollo  at  Miletus). 
330  b.  Sculpture  produced  at  a  very  early  period  orna- 

D  mental  works  in  metal  (the  shield  of  Achilles)  ;  earthen 
vessels  with  paintings  burnt  into  the  clay  ;  and,  above  all, 
statues  of  the  gods,  which  at  first  were  of  wood,  covered 
with  real  garments,  then  of  brass  and  marble,  and  at  the 
period  of  their  greatest  perfection  (after  the  Persian  wars) 
also  of  gold  and  ivory.  The  ornaments  of  the  temple 
afforded  also  an  ample  field  for  the  sculptor's  art.  These 
at  first  consisted  of  splendid  votive  offerings,  vessels  and 


331—333.  §72.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  171 

other  furniture  with  relievos,  some  of  which  were  of  co-  (330) 
lossal  dimensions  and  rich  materials ;  and,  at  a  later  period,  A 
of  groups  of  statues,  representing  mythological  scenes. 
When  art  no  longer  confined  itself  to  religious  representa- 
tions, but  selected  also  subjects  from  public  and  private  life, 
its  productions  became  so  numerous  that  even  hamlets  and 
villages  had  their  collections.  The  most  distinguished 
masters  in  sculpture  were,  Phidias,  who  executed  in  gold 
and  ivory  the  statues  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  of  Athene  in 
the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and  the  colossal  image  of  Athene 
in  the  acropolis  of  Athens,  in  brass — P  olycletus,  Myron, 
Scopas,  Praxiteles,  and  Lysippus. 

c.  Painting  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to  the  deli-  331 
neation  of  figures  on  earthenware,  and  was  consequently  B 
considered  subordinate  to  sculpture,  until  the  age  of  Pe- 
ricles, and  especially  the  fourth  century  B.  c.,  when  it  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  art  by  Polygnotus, 
Z  e  u  x  i  s,  and  Parrhasius,  and  attained  the  highest  degree 
of  perfection  under  A  pell  es,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  the 
Great.     His  works  consisted  partly  of  frescoes,  and  partly 
of  painted  tablets. 

5.  TRADE. 

The  trade  of  the  Greeks  in  the  heroic  age  was  merely  332 
passive.     They  permitted  the  commerce  of  the  Phceni-  c 
cians,  who  brought  them  not  only  the  products  of  their 
own  manufacturing  industry,  but  also  those  of  Ethiopia, 
Arabia,  India,  and  other  foreign  countries  (electron,1  for 
instance).     At  a  very  early  period,  however,  the  Cretans 
and  Phseacians  were  notorious  for  their  sea-voyages  and 
acts  of  piracy.     The  Phoenicians  being  gradually  sup-  D 
planted,  and  piracy  in  a  great  measure  suppressed,  the 
trade  became  active,  and  was  carried  on  principally  by 
Corinth,  Sicyon,  jEgma,  Athens,  the  Cyclades,  and  the 
Ionian  colonies,  and    promoted    by  the  establishment  of 
colonies  and  by  commercial  leagues  and  religious  unions. 

Principal  branches  of  Greek  commerce  : —  333 

1.  Between  the  Grecian  states  themselves. 

2.  Between  the  mother  country  and  its  colonies. 

3.  To  foreign  countries — a.  .Eastward  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor, 
and    thence   into   the    interior  as    far    as  Cappadocia    and  Pontus. 

1  Acording  to  Htillman,  the  term  "  electron"  signifies,  in  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  not  amber,  but  precious  stones  in  general. 


172  EUROPE. —GREECE.     [334—336.  $73. 

(333)  &•  North-eastward  to  Thrace,  the  Propontis,  the  Bosporus,  the  Pontua 
A  Euxlnus,  and  from  the  cities  on  its  northern  shore  (Dioscurias  and 
Olbia)  to  the  interior  of  Sarmatia.  c.  Southwards  to  Cyprus,  Egypt 
(the  Hellenion,  originally  a  merely  religious  but  afterwards  a  com- 
mercial union,  founded  by  Naucratis  as  an  emporium),  Cyrene,  and 
thence  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  d.  Northwards  to  the  Ionic  and 
Adriatic  sea,  and  from  Epidaurus  into  the  interior  of  Illyria.  e.  West- 
ward to  Italy,  Spain,  and  Gaul. 

Principal  articles. — 1.  Of  import: — Grain  from  the  colonies  on  the 
Cimmerian  Bosporus  in  Egypt  and  Sicily — timber  from  Thrace  and 
Macedonia — ivory  from  Africa — slaves  from  Phrygia,  Thrace,  and 
the  countries  of  Scythia  and  the  Caucasus — linen  and  papyrus  from 
Egypt.  2.  Of  export: — Wine,  oil,  honey,  wax,  works  in  metal,  &c 


II.  THE  MACEDONIANS. 
SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 

334      Diodorus,  in  seventeen  books. — Arrian  (see  §  50). — Plutarch,  in 

_  his  Biographies  of  Demosthenes  and  Alexander  the  Great. — Curtius 

de  rebus  gestis  Alexandri  Magni,  3 — 10,  B. — Some  of  the  orations 

of  Demosthenes  and  ^Eschines. — A  few  notices  in  Herodotus,  Thu- 

cydides,  and  Justin. 

MODERN  AUTHORITIES. 

The  settlements,  origin,  and  early  history  of  the  Macedonian  people, 
by  K.  O.  MQller,  Berlin,  1825. — Flathe  ;  History  of  Macedonia,  and 
of  the  empire  ruled  by  the  Macedonian  Kings;  Leipzic,  1832 — 34, 
two  parts. — Mannert ;  History  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great ;  Leipzic,  1787. 


§  73.  Geography  of  Macedonia. 

335  BOUNDARIES. — Macedonia,  as  the  term  was  originally 
c  understood,  or  Emathia,  extended  from  Mount  Olympus 

to  the  mouth  of  the  Lydias ;  consequently  that  portion  of 
it  which  bordered  on  the  Thermalc  gulf  was  a  mere  narrow 
strip  of  land.  But  as  the  power  of  the  Macedonian  kings 
increased,  the  term  obtained  a  wider  signification  ;  and  in 
the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great  was  taken  to  indicate  the 
whole  country,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  lake  Lychmtis, 
on  the  north  by  the  Scardian  mountains,  on  the  east  by  the 
Nestus,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Macedonian  or  Olympian 
chain,  and  the  ^Egean  sea.  As  a  Roman  province,  Mace- 
donia comprised  also  Thessaly  and  a  part  of  Illyria. 

336  MOUNTAINS. — In  the  south  the  Macedonian,  or  Olympian 
range  (also  Cambunii  Monies) ;  in  the  west,  north,  and 


337 — 340.  §74.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  173 

east,  several  branches  of  the  Scardus.     Mount  Athos,  on 
the  peninsula  of  Acte. 

WATERS. — The  Thracian  sea,  with  the  Strymonic  and  337 
Thermaic  gulfs,  inclosing  the    peninsula  of  Chalcidlce,  A 
which  is  again  divided  into  three  smaller  peninsulas,  formed 
by  the  Singitic  and  Toronaic  gulfs.     The  names  of  these 
peninsulas  were  Acte,  Sithonia,  .and  Pallene. — The  lake 
Lychnltis. 

RIVERS. — a.  Flowing  into  the  Strymonic  gulf,  the  Nes-  338 
tus,  and  Strymon ;    b.  into  the  Thermaic  gulf,  the  Axius, 
and  Haliacmon. 

CITIES. — 1.  Pydna  (battle  in  168).    2.  Pel  la,  the  ca-  339 
pital,  and  residence  of  the  sovereign.    3.  Thessalonlca  B 
(formerly  Therma — now  Salonichi — the  place  of  Cicero's 
exile),  built  by  Cassander.    4.  Potidsea,  on  the  isthmus  of 
Pallene.    5.  Olynthus,  destroyed  by  Philip  II.    6.  Am- 
phipolis,  on  the  Strymon,  an  Athenian  colony  (battle  in 
422).     7.  Philippi,  formerly  Cremdes  (battle  in  42). 


§  74.  History  of  Macedonia  to  the  Reign  of  Philip  II. 

There  exist  two  traditions  respecting  the  establishment  340 
of  the  Macedonian  monarchy  ;  neither  of  which,  however,  c 
asserts  more  than  the  fact  that  the  kings  of  Macedonia 
were  descended  from  Hercules.     1.  The  Temenide  (and 
consequently    Heraclide)   Caranus  of  Argos   conquered 
Edessa  in  Emathia,  and  named  it  jEgse.     2.  Perdiccas, 
also  a  Temenide  from  Argos,  in  conjunction  with  his  two 
brothers,  made  himself  master  of  Emathia. 

By  degrees  the  whole  of  the  sea-coast,  from  the  frontiers 
of  Thessaly  to  the  Axius,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Hera- 
clide kings,  who  exercised  also  a  certain  authority  over 
the  petty  barbarian  sovereigns  in  the  interior.  The  first 
continuous  notices  of  Macedonian  history  commence  with 
the  subjection  of  the  country  to  the  Persians  by  Mardoni- 
us,  B.  c.  490. l 

The  Macedonian  king  Alexander,  who  was  compelled  D 
to  take  a  part  in  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  against  Greece, 

1  King  Amyntas  I.  had  already  given  earth  and  water,  the  em- 
blems of  submission,  to  Megabazus,  the  Persian  satrap  of  Thrace ; 
but  Macedonia  remained  free  from  Persian  dominion  until  the  year 
490. 


174  EUROPE. GREECE.    [341,  342.  §  75. 

(340)  was  employed  ineffectually  by  Mardonius  as  an  ambassa- 
A  dor  to  the  Athenians,  to  whom  he  betrayed  the  barbarians' 
plan  of  operations  before  the  battle  of  Platsese.  The  re- 
treat of  Mardonius  in  479  liberated  Macedonia,  as  well 
as  Greece.  The  next  king,  Perdiccas  II.,  at  the  com- 
mencement  of  his  reign,  was  an  ally  of  the  Athenians  ; 
but  when  they  supported  his  rebellious  brother  Philip,  and 
the  Thracian  king  Sitalces,  in  their  opposition  to  his  gov- 
ernment, he  went  over  to  their  enemies,  promoted  the  ris- 
ing of  the  Chalcidians  (Potidaea)  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
B  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Brasidas.  His  son  A  re  he- 
la  us  improved  the  condition  of  the  country  by  his  pro- 
motion of  agriculture,  the  encouragement  which  he  gave 
to  literary  and  scientific  Greeks  (Euripides  lived  at  his 
court),  the  construction  of  public  highways,  fortification  of 
the  cities,  discipline  of  the  army,  &c.  His  death  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  gloomy  period  of  confusion  and  revolution, 
which  lasted  until  the  time  of  Philip  II. ;  who  availed 
himself  of  his  influence,  as  guardian  of  his  nephew, 
Amyntas  III.,  to  assume  the  reins  of  government  in  the 
year  359. 

34 1  CONSTITUTION  OF  MACEDONIA  DURING  THIS  PERIOD. — The  king  was 
commander-in-chief,  high  priest,  and  chief  justice  ;  but  in  all  questions 
which  concerned  the  general  welfare  he  was  bound  by  the  votes  of 
his  nobles,  and  was  also  obliged  to  share  the  judicial  authority  with 
his  people.  Under  Alexander  the  Great  this  power  was  exercised 
by  the  army. 


§  75.  Philip  II. 
(359—536.) 

342  The  Thebans  (Pelopidas)  having  settled  the  disputed 
succession  in  Macedonia  by  the  partition  of  the  kingdom 
between  two  claimants,  Philip1  (son  of  Amyntas  II.)  was 

•   Amyntas  II.  t370. 


Alexander  II. 
t368. 

Perdiccas  III. 
t359. 

Philip  II. 
t336. 

Amyntas  III. 

Alexander  the 
Great. 
t323. 

343.    §76.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  175 

sent  as  a  hostage  for  the  observance  of  the  treaty  to  (342) 
Thebes ;  where,  during  a  residence  of  three  years  in  the  A 
house  of  Epaminondas,  he  not  only  received  a  Greek  edu- 
cation, but  acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Theban 
tactics,  and  of  the  fearful  jealousies  which  existed  between 
the  different  states  of  Greece.  After  the  dissolution  of 
this  compact  by  the  assassination  of  one  of  the  claimants 
to  the  throne,  Philip  returned  to  Macedonia,  where  he 
was  invested  with  a  petty  principality.  On  the  succession, 
however,  of  Amyntas  III.,  the  infant  son  of  Perdiccas  III., 
the  empire  being  threatened  by  the  neighboring  barbari- 
ans (Illyrians,  Paeonians,  and  Thracians),  and  two  other 
pretenders  to  the  crown  having  raised  the  standard  of  re- 
bellion, Philip  assumed  the  office  of  protector,  overthrew 
both  the  pretenders,  beat  back  the  barbarians,  and  himself 
ascended  the  throne.  We  have  no  minute  account  of  these 
occurrences. 

Thenceforward  the  grand  object  of  Philip  seems  to  have  B 
been  the  subjugation  of  the  Persian  empire.  With  this 
view,  he  not  only  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  army  by 
the  introduction  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx — the  terrific 
power  of  which  consisted  in  its  close  ranks,  the  heavy  ar- 
mor of  the  men,  and  their  long  spears — but  also  endeav- 
ored to  make  himself  master  of  the  coasts  of  Thrace  (that 
they  might  serve  as  means  of  communication  with  the 
countries  which  he  intended  to  conquer),  and  to  acquire 
over  the  Grecian  states  a  Hegemony,  which  should  place 
their  forces  at  his  disposal.  For  an  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  this  object  was  gradually  attained  see  312,  sqq. 

Scarcely,  however,  had  this  Hegemony  been  acquired,  c 
and  the  advanced  guard  of  the  army  commenced  its  march 
into  Asia,  when  the  king  was  assassinated,  on  coming  out 
of  the  theatre  at  ^Egse,  by  one  Pausanias,  whose  complaint 
of  having  received  ill-treatment  from  a  member  of  the 
royal  family  had  been  contemptuously  dismissed  by  Philip. 

§  76.  Alexander  the  Great. 
(336—323.) 

Alexander,  born  in  the  year  B.  c.  350.  on  the  same  night  in  343 
which  Herostratus  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Artemis  [Dz-  D 
awa],  at  Ephesus,was  scarcely  20  years  old, when  he  ascend- 
ed the  throne.     His  education  had  been  superintended  by 
9 


176  EUROPE. — GREECE.       [344,  345.  §  76. 

(343)  Aristotle  (cf.  328,  c),  from  whom  he  had  acquired  a  taste  for 
A  poetry,  especially  for  the  compositions  of  Homer.  The  first 
acts  of  his  reign  were  to  punish  the  murderers  of  his  father ; 
and  remove  certain  pretenders  to  the  throne,who  disputed  the 
legitimacy  of  his  birth.  On  receiving  information  that  the 
Greeks,  at  the  instigation  of  Demosthenes,  had  refused  to 
recognize  his  Hegemony,  Alexander  suddenly  appeared  in 
Greece,  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  at  the  awidqiov,  at 
Corinth,  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  des- 
tined to  act  ngainst  the  Persians,  all  the  states,  except  La- 
csedemon  being  thoroughly  humbled,  and  concurring  in 
the  election. 

B  Lest  however  his  plans  should  be  disconcerted  by  the  breaking  out 
of  fresh  disturbances,  he  compelled  the  Greeks  to  conclude  a  general 
peace  with  each  other,  and  with  the  Macedonians ;  the  settlement 
of  their  disputes  being  referred  to  a  Synedrion,  which  seems  to  have 
sat  at  Corinth  during  the  whole  of  Alexander's  reign. 

344  An  expedition  was  now  undertaken  against  the  Thraci- 
ans,  Triballi,  and  Getce,  who  had  manifested  symptoms  of  a 
desire  to  regain  their  independence ;  and  Alexander,  having 
advanced  beyond  the  Ister  and  accomplished  his  object, 
was  returning,  having,  in  his  march  homewards,  subdued 
the  Illyrians  and  Taulantians,  when  intelligence  reached 
him,  that  fresh  disturbances  had  broken  out  in  Greece,  in 

c  consequence  of  a  false  report  of  his  death.  Thebes,  which, 
in  spite  of  the  freedom  and  independence  guaranteed  by 
her  ally,  was  still  occupied  by  a  Macedonian  garrison,  had 
revolted.  Within  twelve  days  Alexander  appeared  before 
the  place,  overthrew  the  Thebans  in  a  pitched  battle,  and 
having  obtained  a  decree  of  the  Synedrion  at  Corinth,  de- 
molished the  city,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cadmea,  the 
temples,  and  the  house  of  Pindar,  and  sold  the  surviving 
inhabitants  (30,000)  into  slavery. 

345  His  campaign  against  the  Persians.    Havingleft 
D  Antipater  as  regent  in  Macedonia,  Alexander  undertook 

the  conquest  of  the  Persian  empire,  which  intestine  weak- 
ness had  already  brought  to  the  verge  of  dissolution.  In 
tin-  spring  of  334,  a  Macedonian  force  of  30,000  infantry, 
and  5000  cavalry,  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  overthrew 
the  satraps  of  Darius  and  the  Greek  mercenaries  under 
Memnon,  a  Rhodian,  on  the  banks  of  the  Granicus, 
where  Clitus  saved  the  life  of  Alexander.  As  he  advanced 
along  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  he  was  hailed  as 


346.    §76.]  EUROPE.— GREECE.  177 

their  deliverer  from  Persian  tyranny  by  the  inhabitants  of  (345) 
the  Greek  towns,  to  whom  he  granted  independence,  on  A 
condition  of  their  closing  their  ports  against  the  Persian 
fleet.  The  only  resistance  offered  was  by  the  Persian 
governor  of  Miletus,  and  by  Memnon,  the  Rhodian,  at 
Halicarnassus;  but  both  cities  were  carried  by  storm. 
Alexander  then  divided  his  army,  himself  proceeding 
along  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  as  far  as  the 
frontiers  of  Cilicia,  whilst  his  general,  Parmenio,  made 
himself  master  of  Phrygia.  The  further  advance  of  Alex- 
ander along  the  southern  coast  being  barred  by  the  rocky  u 
mountains  of  Cilicia,  he  marched  northwards  into  the  inte- 
rior of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  intention  of  wintering  in  the 
fruitful  district  of  Phrygia.  In  order  to  render  the  super- 
stitious belief  of  the  people  of  Asia  subservient  to  his 
purpose,  he  cut  the  famous  knot  at  Gordium. 

In  the  year  333  Alexander,  in  conjunction  with  his  general 
Parmenio,  entered  Cilicia,  and  falling  sick  at  Tarsus,  after 
bathing  in  the  Cydnus,  was  cured  by  his  calumniated 
physician,  Philip.  At  Issus,  on  the  borders  of  Syria, 
Darius  himself  was  overthrown  by  Alexander,  in  a  battle 
in  which  100,000  Persians  fell,  and  their  king  escaped 
with  difficulty.  The  rich  camp  of  the  Persians,  with  the  c 
magnificent  royal  tent,  the  mother,  wile,  two  daughters, 
and  a  son  of  Darius,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror, 
who  treated  the  prisoners  with  his  accustomed  clemency. 
Damascus,  with  the  royal  treasury,  was  taken  by  Parmenio. 
Meanwhile  Darius  had  escaped  to  the  other  side  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  was  in  vain  endeavoring  to  purchase  a 
peace  by  the  resignation  of  all  his  dominions  as  far  as  that 
river. 

In  the  year  332  Alexander  conquered  Syria,  Cyprus,  346 
and  Phoenicia,  where  the  insular  city  of  Tyre  alone  D 
refused  to  admit  a  Macedonian  garrison,  and  after  a  siege  of 
seven  months  was  stormed  by  means  of  a  dam  thrown 
across  from  the  mainland  to  the  island.  In  Palestine, 
Gaza,  (the  only  city  that  offered  any  opposition)  was 
taken  after  a  siege  of  two  months*  In  Egypt,  where 
Alexander  was  welcomed  as  a  deliverer  from  the  Persian 
yoke,  he  endeavored  to  perpetuate  his  power  by  founding 
at  the  western  embouchure  of  the  Nile  the  port  and 
(almost  entirely  Greek)  city  of  Alexandria. 


178  EUROPE.— GREECE.     [347—349.  §76. 

347  From  this  place,  Alexander,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable 
A  portion  of  his  army,  marched  through  the  Libyan  desert  to 
the  temple  of  Zeus  Ammon  (by  whose  priest  he  was  pro- 
nounced to  be  the  son  of  the  god),  probably  for  the  purpose 
of  offering,  in  the  sight  of  the  Egyptians,  a  solemn  act  of 
homage  to  their  supreme  deity.  By  the  conquest  of  Phoe- 
nicia and  Cyprus,  he  had  also  acquired  a  powerful  fleet, 
consisting  of  ships  which  at  an  earlier  period  had  composed 
the  main  strength  of  the  Persian  marine.  Returning  to 
Asia,  he  overthrew  Darius  at  Gaugamela  near  Arbela 
B  (1  Oct.),  331.  The  defeated  monarch  fled  for  refuge  to 
the  inaccessible  north-eastern  regions  of  his  kingdom, 
whilst  the  conqueror  promptly  took  possession  of  the  more 
important  and  wealthy  provinces  of  the  southeast,  viz., 
Babylonia,  Susiana,  and  Persis.  Retracing  his  steps 
through  Media,  in  the  hope  of  discovering  the  fugitive, 
Alexander,  on  his  arrival  in  Parthia,  found  that  Darius 
had  already  fallen  by  the  hands  of  the  satraps  of  Bactria 
(Bessus),  and  Arachosia. 

349  The  death  of  Darius  removed  the  last  barrier  which 
c  withheld  the  principal  Persians  from  throwing  themselves 
into  the  arms  of  the  conqueror,  whose  crafty  policy,  even 
more  than  his  brilliant  victories,  enabled  him  to  found  a 
Persico-Macedonian  kingdom.  The  rapid  subju- 
gation of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  empire  was  effected 
principally  by  the  adoption  of  three  measures :  1 .  The 
satraps,  who  were  willing  to  recognize  him  as  sovereign  of 
the  east,  were  permitted  to  retain  their  satrapies.  This 
secured  the  eastern  portion.  2.  The  dress,  manners  and 
court  ceremonial  of  the  earlier  Persian  kings  were  adopted 
by  Alexander,  that  he  might  appear  as  little  as  possible  in 
D  the  light  of  a  foreign  conqueror.  3.  In  accordance  with 
a  system  which  had  hitherto  worked  well,  he  governed 
with  more  mildness  than  the  Persian  monarchs,  and  with 
more  respect  for  the  principle  of  nationality. 

349  After  traversing  the  eastern  provinces,  Alexander  pro- 
ceeded to  Sogdiana,  in  pursuit  of  the  satrap  Bessus  (the 
murderer  of  Darius,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Arta- 
xerxes  III.),  and  having  taken  him  prisoner,  ordered  his 
immediate  execution.  The  north-eastern  limits  of  the 
Persian  empire  having  been  reached,  and  the  country  com- 
pletely subjugated,  Alexander  conceived  the  design  of 


350 351.    §76.]       EUROPE.— GREECE.  179 

making  himself  king  of  all  Asia,  the  extreme  boundaries  of  (349) 
which  were,  as  he  supposed,  at  no  great  distance.     With  A 
this  view  he  undertook  an  expedition  against  the  Scythians 
and  Indians,  and  crossed  the  Juxartes ;  but  finding  that  the 
nomadic  hordes  avoided  a  battle,  and  that  as  he  advanced 
the  country  became  more  inhospitable,  he  retraced  his 
steps,  contenting  himself  with  posting  garrisons  along  the 
line  of  frontier  ibrmed  by  the  river. 

Meanwhile  discontent  had  manifested  itself  in  two  quarters.  1.  350 
Among  the  Macedonian  nobles,  who  had  followed  him  to  Asia,  and  fi 
could  neither  brook  the  appointment  of  the  Persian  nobility  to  satra- 
pies, nor  readily  accord  to  their  sovereign  the  divine  honors  which 
he  now  claimed  as  king  of  Persia.  Some  of  the  most  distinguished 
among  them,  as  Parmenio,  and  his  son  Philotas,  Clitus,  and  Callis- 
thenes,  lost  their  lives  in  consequence  of  their  refusal  to  render  this 
unworthy  homage.  2.  In  Greece,  where  the  severities  of  Alexander 
and  his  lieutenant,  Antipater,  became  every  day  more  intolerable,  the 
Spartan  king,  Agis  II.,  availing  himself  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
by  the  absence  of  Antipater  in  Thrace  (whither  he  had  gone  for  the 
purpose  of  chastising  his  revolted  officer  Memnon),  raised  the  standard 
of  patriotic  warfare.  None  however  supported  him,  except  the 
Achaeans,  Eleans,  and  Arcadians ;  and  a  single  victory  (near  JEgae, 
in  Arcadia)  put  an  end  to  the  insurrection  (330). 


Campaign  of  Alexander  in  western  India,  327  351 
and  326. 

With  an  army,  of  which  the  nucleus  alone  was  composed  c 
of  Macedonians  and  Greeks,  the  main  body  consisting  of 
the  most  promising  barbarians,  Alexander,  in  the  spring  of 
327,  crossed  the  Indian  frontier,  and  in  the  expectation  of 
soon  reaching  the  oastern  coast  of  Asia,  fought  his  way  to 
the  Hyphasis,  the  brave  savages  of  the  Punjab  offering  the 
most  determined  resistance  to  his  progress.  For  his  suc- 
cess he  was,  in  a  great  measure,  indebted  to  dissensions 
among  the  chieftains  of  northern  India,  and  to  the  alliance 
of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns,  such  as  Taxila  and  Porus, 
who  were  induced,  by  the  promise  of  important  benefits,  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Macedonians,  permit 
the  establishment  of  fortresses  within  their  dominions 
(e.  g.  Nicaea,  and  Bucephala,  at  the  two  most  important 
fords  of  the  Ganges),  and  receive  Macedonian  satraps  as  D 
commanders  of  the  garrisons,  or  themselves  become  satraps. 
As  Alexander's  knowledge  of  the  extent  of  India  became 
more  accurate,  and  his  army  melted  away  in  repeated  and 


180  EUROPE. — GREECE.    [352,  353.  §  76. 

(351)  obstinate  combats  with  the  barbarians,  whilst  at  the  same 
A  time  distressing  intelligence  reached  him  of  the  misconduct 
of  his  satraps,  the  idea  of  subduing  India  was  gradually 
abandoned.  On  the  Hyphasis  he  was  compelled  (it  is 
said,  by  the  discontent  of  his  soldiers  [?]),  to  give  his  line 
of  march  a  southerly,  instead  of  an  easterly,  direction. 
Embarking,  with  a  part  of  his  army,  on  board  a  fleet  of 
1800  to  2000  vessels  built  on  the  Hydaspes,  and  com- 
manded by  Nearchus,  he  sailed  down  the  Hydaspes  and 
the  Acesines,  and  thence  (after  the  overthrow  of  the  brave 
Malli  and  Oxythracians)  down  the  Indus  (the  mouths  of 
which  were  accurately  surveyed  and  fortified,  in  anticipa- 
B  tion  of  a  future  enterprise)  into  the  Indian  ocean.  Near- 
chus piloted  the  fleet  through  the  Erythraean  sea  into  the 
Persian  gulf,  and  discovered  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris;  but  Alexander,  with  the  larger  division  of 
his  army,  returned  overland  to  Persia.  Taxila  and  Porus 
seem  to  have  been  the  only  Indian  sovereigns  who  con- 
tinued in  a  sort  of  dependent  state  until  the  death  of 
Alexander. 

352  His  return  to  Babylon,  326— 324. 

c  Alexander,  with  that  portion  of  his  forces  which  had  not 
embarked  on  board  the  ships,  continued  his  march  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Ganges,  along  the  sea  shore,  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  his  fleet  in  sight  and  supplying  it  with  provi- 
sions. When  this  line  of  march  became  no  longer  prac- 
ticable, he  proceeded  through  Gedrosia,  Carmania,  Persis, 
and  Susa,  to  Babylon,  where  he  punished  the  arrogant 
satraps  with  great  severity.  The  last  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  (with  the  exception  of  a  short  campaign  against 
the  wild  Cossseis)  in  making  arrangements  for  the  inter- 
nal regulation  of  his  dominions,  and  in  preparing  for  a 
future  expedition,  probably  against  India. 

353  Internal  arrangements.    The  barbarian  satraps,  who  oppressed  the 
D  people,  were  removed,  and  their  places  supplied  by  Macedonians.    In 

order  still  further  to  conciliate  the  barbarians,  Alexander  married 
Barsine,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Darius  Codomannus,  and  Parysatis, 
the  youngest  sister  of  King  Artaxerxes  III.,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
compelled  the  most  distinguished  of  his  suite,  as  well  as  10,000  other 
Macedonians,  to  take  Persian  wives.  The  discontent  of  the  Mace- 
donians at  finding  that  the  ranks  of  the  army,  and  even  of  the  king's 
body-guard  were  filled  with  barbarians,  whilst  the  services  of  his  own 
veteran  soldiers  were  forgotten,  occasioned  a  mutiny,  which  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  energy  and  firmness  of  the  king. 


355,  356.  §  77.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  181 

In  the  year  323,  Alexander,  in  consequence  of  his  ex-  354 
traordinary   exertions,  and  his  undue  indulgence  in  the  A 
pleasures  of  the  table,  died  at  Babylon  [of  a  fever]  at 
the  early  age  of  thirty-two. 

§  77.  Partition  of  the  Persico- Macedonian  empire. 

After  Alexander's  death,  his  most  distinguished  generals  355 
and  friends,  Perdiccas,  Leonatus,  and  Ptolemoeus,  the  son 
of  Lagus,  in  conjunction  with  the  leaders  of  the  army,  de- 
termined to  proclaim  as  king  the  child  to  which  his  widow, 
Roxane,1  expected  shortly  to  give  birth,  in  the  hope  that  it 
would  prove  a  male.  Perdiccas  (at  first  in  conjunction  B 
with  Leonatus)  was  to  govern  as  regent  ({Tri/uiqnJ?)  in  Asia, 
Antipater  and  Craterus  in  Europe ;  and  the  most  dis- 
tinguished Macedonians  were  to  be  advanced  to  satrapies. 
The  army,  however,  compelled  them  to  recognize  Arrhi- 
dceus,  the  weak-minded  half-brother  of  the  late  king,  to- 
gether with  his  posthumous  son,  Alexander. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  kingdom  was  entirely  unaf- 
fected by  this  partition  of  satrapies  ;  but  in  the  west  Pto- 
lemceus  Lagi  obtained  the  satrapy  of  Egypt,  Leona- 
tus of  the  Hellespontine  Phrygia  ;  Cassander  of  Caria; 
Antigonus  of  Pamphylia,  Phrygia,  and  Lycia  ;  Eume- 
nes  (Alexander's  private  secretary)  of  the  still  uncon- 
quered  districts  of  Paphlagonia  and  Cappadocia  ;  and  Ly- 
simachus  of  Thrace  and  the  western  coasts  of  Pontus. 

Perdiccas,  who  had  accepted  the  regency  in  the  356 
hope  of  being  able  to  set  aside  the  two  royal  puppets  c 
Arrhidaeus  and  Alexander,  and  himself  ascend  the 
throne,  pursued  his  plans  so  incautiously  as  to  raise  up 
against  him  a  confederacy  of  satraps  :  and  when  he  ap- 
pealed to  arms,  he  was  slain  by  his  own  troops  during 
a  campaign  in  Egypt  in  the  year  321.  The  vacant 
regency  was  now  conferred  by  the  army  on  Antipater, 
who,  at  his  death  in  318,  bequeathed  the  guardianship  of 
the  two  young  kings,  not  to  his  own  son,  Cassander,  who 
was  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  royal  family  of  Macedonia,  but 
to  his  former  lieutenant-general  Polysperchon.  This 

1  Alexander  the  Great 
by  Roxane  by  Barsine 

Alexander.  Hercules. 


182  EUROPE.— GREECE.      [357,  359.  §  77. 

(356)  arrangement  occasioned  a  war  between  Cassander  and 
A  Polysperchon,  the  former  allying  himself  with  Antigonus, 
the  governor  of  Western  Asia,  the  latter  with  Eumenes. 
Antigonus  was  victorious  in  Asia,  and  Cassander  in 
Europe  ;  whilst  the  ruin  of  Eumenes  in  Asia,  through  the 
treachery  of  his  partisans,  occasioned  also  the  fall  of  Poly- 
sperchon in  Europe.  The  ambitious  designs  of  Antigonus, 
who  had  portioned  out  the  satrapies  of  eastern  Asia  accord- 
ing to  his  own  caprice,  and  every  where  taken  possession 
of  the  royal  treasures,  had  now  become  so  apparent,  that  a 
confederacy  was  formed  against  him  by  the  satraps  of  the 
west,  Cassander  of  Macedonia,  Ptolemseus  Lagi,  Lysi- 
machus,  and  Seleucus,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Baby- 
lon. This  occasioned,  at  two  different  periods '(314,  301), 
B  war  bet  ween  Antigonus  and  those  satraps.  For 
a  long  time  Antigonus,  assisted  by  his  son,  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  made  head  against  his  enemies,  but  in  the 
year  301  he  was  defeated  and  slain  in  a  battle  fought  at 
1  ps us,  against  Lysimachus  and  Seleucus.  His  dominions 
were  divided  among  themselves  by  the  conquerors,  so  that 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Persico- Macedonian  empire  there  now 
arose  four  new  monarchies.  Meanwhile  the  two  royal 
puppets  were  murdered. 

357  First  War  (314 — 311).     Antigonus  endeavored  by  his  activity 
£  and  cunning  to  divide  his  opponents,  whose  plans  of  operation  were 

different.  Whilst  he  was  preparing  for  an  invasion  of  Egypt,  and 
commencing  a  war  with  Ptolemy,  by  making  himself  master  of 
Phoenicia,  he  caused  it  to  be  proclaimed  to  the  Greeks  (by  the 
Macedonians  in  his  army,)  that  they  were  emancipated  from  the 
Macedonian  yoke.  This  was  done  for  the  purpose  of  weakening 
Cassander  of  Macedonia.  Then  he  subdued  the  south-western  part 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  had  already  reached  the  Hellespont,  intending  to 
cross  into  Europe,  when  his  son  Demetrius,  whom  he  had  left  behind 
in  Phoenicia,  was  totally  defeated  by  Ptolemaeus,  near  Gaza  (in  312.) 
Seleucus  then  regained  the  satrapy  of  Babylon  (312),  of  which  he 
had  been  deprived,  and  united  with  it  Media  and  Susiana.  In  order 
to  reconquer  the  east,  Antigonus  abandoned  his  European  campaign, 
and  concluded  a  peace  with  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  and  Ptolemecus, 
reserving  for  himself  the  sovereignty  over  the  whole  of  Asia,  nnd 
stipulating  that  his  promise  of  independence  to  the  Greeks  should  be 
confirmed. 

358  Second  War  (309 — 301).     As  neither  party  observed  the  con- 
ditions of  this  peace  (for  the  garrisons  of  Cassander  as  well  as  the 
lieutenants  of  Antigonus  still  remained  in  Greece  ;  and  Alexander 
had  moreover  procured   tin-  ;i--:i-sm;iti<>n  of  Hercules,  the  last  scion 
of  the  ancient  royal  house),  the  war  broke  out  afresh.     Demetrius, 


359.  §78.]  EUROPE. — GREECE.  183 

who  was  now  commissioned  by 'his  father  Antigonus  to  effect  the  (358) 
liberation  of  Greece,  drove  the  troops  of  Cussander  out  of  Athens,  A 
and  for  this  service  was  rewarded  with  the  most  extraordinary 
marks  of  respect ;  two  new  tribes,  Antigonias  and  Demetrias,  being 
named  after  his  father  and  himself.  He  then,  in  obedience  to  his 
father's  commands,  returned  into  Asia,  and  after  a  splendid  victory 
over  the  Egyptian  fleet,  wrested  Cyprus  from  Ptolemeeus  Lagi.  In 
their  joy  at  having  obtained  this  advantage,  both  Antigonus  and 
Demetrius  assumed  the  title  of  king,  an  example  which  was  followed 
by  Ptolemaeus,  Lysimachus,  and  Seleucus.  After  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  on  Egypt,  Demetrius  tried  to  avenge  himself  on  the  flourish- 
ing and  powerful  republic  of  Rhodes,  which  had  refused  to  assist 
him  against  Ptolemaeus ;  but  notwithstanding  the  most  .remendous 
exertions,  and  the  construction  of  an  engine  termed  Helepolis,  which 
consisted  of  nine  stories,  and  was  worked  by  3400  men,  he  was 
compelled  to  raise  the  siege,  and  gladly  accepted  the  invitation  of  the 
Greeks  to  aid  them  in  opposing  the  ambitious  designs  of  Lysander. 
The  rapid  and  successful  progress  of  Demetrius  (who  had  been 
nominated  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grecian  forces  at  the  Syne- 
drion  at  Corinth),  compelled  Lysander  to  enter  into  a  fresh  alliance 
with  Lysimachus,  Seleucus,  and  Ptolemaeus.  Lysimachus  having  in  B 
consequence  of  this  arrangement  marched  into  Asia  Minor,  whilst 
Seleucus  at  the  same  time  advanced  from  the  east,  Antigonus,  who 
was  now  in  his  eighty-first  year,  recalled  his  son  from  Greece,  but 
fell  in  the  battle  of  Ipsus»30l.  His  territories  were  divided  among 
the  conquerors,  Lysimachus  receiving  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  on 
this  side  the  Taurus,  and  Seleucus  the  rest  of  that  district  together 
with  Syria,  including  Phoenicia  and  Palestine.  Demetrius,  who  still 
retained  possession  of  Cyprus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon,  and  had  the  largest 
fleet  at  his  disposal,  proceeded  towards  Greece. 

III.     THE   KINGDOMS  WHICH  AROSE  OUT  OF  THE  MACE- 
DONIAN MONARCHY.1 

§  78.  Macedonia  and  Greece. 
(323—146.) 

The  Lamian  War,  323—322.  359 

On  receiving  the  intelligence  of  Alexander's  death,  the  c 
Greeks,  who  even  during  his  lifetime  had  made  an  attempt 
to  recover  their  freedom  (see  §  76),  united,  at  the  summons 
of  the  Athenians,  for  a  last  struggle.      Leosthenes,  com- 

1  Succession  of  kings:  a)  Of  various  families:  1.  Philip 
Arrhidaeus  and  Alexander.  2.  Cassander.  3.  Philip.  4.  Anti- 
pater  and  Alexander.  5.  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  6.  Pyrrhus.  7. 
Lysimachus.  8.  Seleucus  Nicator.  9.  Ptolemaeus  Ceraunus.  10. 
Meleager.  11.  Antipater.  12.  Sosthenes.  b.)  Of  the  family  of 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  1.  Antigonus  Gonatas.  2.  Demetrius  II. 
3.  Antigonus  U.  Doson.  4.  Philip  III.  5.  Perseus.  6.  Andriscus. 


184  EUROPE.— GREECE.         [360,361.    §78. 

(359)  mander-in-chief  of  the  allied  army,  transferred  the  theatre 
A  of  war  to  Thessaly,  where  Antipater,  after  sustaining  a 
defeat,  threw  himself  into  Lamia,  with  the  intention  of 
awaiting  the  arrival  of  his  allies  Craterus  and  Leonatus. 
Leonatus  came  first,  and  fell  in  a  second  battle;  but 
Craterus  having  now  joined  Antipater,  and  obtained  a 
considerable  advantage  in  a  third  engagement  (near  Cra- 
non),  most  of  the  Greek  states  endeavored  to  make  terms 
for  themselves,  leaving  the  Athenians  and  ^Etolians  to 
B  carry  on  the  war.  Even  Athens,  when  the  Macedonian 
army  advanced  to  her  walls,  was  compelled  to  sue  for 
peace,  which  was  granted  on  condition  of  her  paying  the 
expenses  of  the  war,  together  with  a  heavy  fine,  receiving 
a  Macedonian  garrison  into  Munychia,  delivering  up  the 
orators  Demosthenes  and  Hyperides,  and  accepting  such  a 
constitution  as  Antipater  thought  fit  to  offer.  The  two 
orators  had  fled  from  Athens,  but  were  overtaken  ;  Hype- 
rides  was  conveyed  to  Macedonia,  where  his  tongue  was 
cut  out — Demosthenes  swallowed  poison  in  the  island  of 
Calauria. 

360  The  kings  of  the  new  Macedonian  empire,  being  fully 
c  aware  that  any  attempt  to  recover  Asia  would  be  fruitless, 

contented  themselves  with  endeavoring  to  render  Greece 
(which  as  yet  was  but  loosely  connected  with  Macedonia) 
a  province  of  that  country.  Notwithstanding,  however, 
the  pertinacity  with  which  they  kept  this  object  in  view, 
their  plans  were  continually  rendered  abortive  even  when 
they  seemed  on  the  eve  of  being  accomplished,  partly  by 
repeated  disputes  respecting  the  succession  to 
the  throne,  partly  by  quarrels  with  the  barbarians 
of  the  north,  especially  the  Gauls,  and  at  a  later  period 
D  by  the  invasion  of  the  Romans.  Another  obstacle 
to  the  complete  subjugation  of  Greece  existed  in  the 
mutual  jealousies  of  those  who  were  at  the  head  of  the 
three  greater  monarchies,  and  in  the  formation  of  the 
jEtolian,  and  revival  ofthe  Achaean  confederacy 
(280).  Thessaly  alone  remained  a  Macedonian  province, 
most  of  the  other  states  being  merely  allies  of  Macedonia, 
and  bearing  each  a  different  relation  to  the  king,  as  the 
head  of  the  Graeco-Macedonian  Symmachy. 

361  Macedonia  and  Grece  invaded  by  the  GauU 
in  280.      A  detachment,  consisting  of  three  hordes,  of 


362,  363.  §  78.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  185 

those  Gallic  tribes,  whose  immigration  a  hundred  years  (361) 
before  had  convulsed  the  south-western  portion  of  western  A 
Europe,  appeared  in  Macedonia  in  the  year  280.  The 
first  horde  overthrew  king  Ptolemseus  Ceraunus,  who  was 
slain  in  the  engagement ;  but  the  invaders  were  sub- 
sequently driven  out  of  the  country  by  Sosthenes.  A 
second  horde  under  Brennus  advanced  as  far  as  Delphi, 
laying  waste  the  country  with  fire  and  sword  ;  but  the 
attacks  of  the  allied  Grecian  force  (now  strengthened  by 
the  addition  of  Macedonians  and  Syrians),  and  the  suffer- 
ings which  they  endured  through  earthquakes  (?),  cold,  and 
hunger,  reduced  their  army  to  a  mere  skeleton.  Brennus,  B 
their  king,  being  grievously  wounded,  fell  by  his  own 
hand  ;  and  the  few  who  escaped,  joining  their  countrymen, 
who  had  remained  in  Thrace,  formed  a  Gallic  settlement 
in  that  country,  which  since  the  death  of  Lysimachus  had 
been  united  with  Macedonia.  A  part  of  them  crossed 
over  into  Asia  Minor,  and  settled  m  Galatia. 

The  establishment  of  the  ^Etolian  and  re- 353 
newal  of  the  Achaean  confederacy  (280)  had  forc 
its  object  the  restoration  and  maintenance  of  Grecian  in- 
dependence. The  JEtottan  confederacy,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  placed  a  strategos,  held  an  annual  meeting 
(Panaetolion)  at  Thermus,  at  which  questions  affecting  the 
general  interests  of  the  confederacy  were  discussed. 
They  had  also  the  great  council  of  the  Apocletse.  The 
ancient  insignificant  union  of  the  Achcean  cities  (see 
§  58)  was  revived,  at  first  by  four  and  subsequently  by  all 
the  rest ;  but  this  confederacy,  which  held  its  session  twice 
a  year  at  ^Egium,  and  subsequently  at  Corinth,  under  the 
presidency  of  a  strategos,  did  not  acquire  any  considerable 
influence  until  the  time  of  Aratus,  who,  as  the  soul  of  the 
whole  union,  gained  over  to  the  cause  his  own  native  city 
of  Sicyon,  together  with  Corinth,  and  all  the  principal 
cities  of  Peloponnesus  (Sparta  excepted).  Even  the  D 
Athenians  were  persuaded  to  join  the  confederacy  through 
the  policy  of  Araitus,  who  bribed  the  Macedonian  governor 
to  withdraw  his  garrison  from  their  city  (229). 

These  successes  of  the  Achseans  excited  the  jealousy  of  363 
the  ^Etolians,  who  endeavored  to  establish  a  confederacy 
of  the  whole  of  Greece  with  themselves  at  its  head.     The 
pursuit  of  this  object  among  the  Peloponnesian  states,  the 


186  EUROPE. — GREECE.     [364 — 366.  §  78. 

(363)  union  of  which  was  also  the  great  end  of  the  Achaean 
A  league,  produced  a  struggle  for  the  Hegemony  of  Greece 
between  the  two  confederacies.  The  Achseans  being  at 
first  unsuccessful,  abandoned  the  principle  on  which  their 
confederacy  had  been  formed,  and  applied  for  aid  to  the 
king  of  Macedonia. 

364  In  the  Cleomenian  war,  as  it  was  called  (228 — 222),  the  ^Etolians 
formed  an  alliance  with  Sparta,  each  party  perhaps  promising  the 
other  that  they  would  divide  the  Hegemony  of  Greece  between  them. 
The  Arliif.-nis  after  sustaining  many  defeats,  were  on  the  point  of 
submitting    themselves    to    the    Hegemony    of    Sparta,    when    the 
ambitious  Aratus,  in  order  to  prevent   the  decline  of  his   personal 

g  influence,  called  in  the  Macedonians.  Cleomfines,  king  of  Sparta, 
wearied  out  by  the  long  war,  which  had  exhausted  all  his  resources, 
was  vanquished,  in  attempting  to  make  good  the  pass  of  Sellasia 
between  Arcadia  and  Laconia,  by  the  numerical  superiority  and 
greater  warlike  skill  of  the  Macedonians.  The  subjugation  of  the 
jEtclians,  who  were  not  comprehended  in  the  great  Grreco- Mace- 
donian Symmachy,  was  left  by  Antigonus  as  a  legacy  to  his  son 
Philip  III.  The  opportunity  for  effecting  this  seemed  to  have  arrived, 
when  the  brave  jEtolians  came  forward  to  resist  the  further  exten- 
sion of  the  great  Graeco  Macedonian  Symmachy,  and  hence  arose  the 
war  of  the  confederates,  between  the  jEtolians  and  a  portion  of  the 
Symmachy.  This  war  was  carried  on  almost  single-handed  by 
Philip  with  such  success,  that  at  the  end  of  two  years  peace  was 
concluded,  the  intelligence  of  Hannibal's  victories  in  Italy  having 
drawn  his  attention  to  the  feasibility  of  attacking  Rome.  uEtolia 
and  Elis  retained  their  independence. 

For  the  relations  of  Macedonia  and  Greece 
with  Rome  see  §  123—126. 

Civilization  of  the  Greeks  from  338  to  146. 

365  Literature:  1.  In  poetry  the  most  remarkable  phe- 
c  nomenon  was  the  New  Comedy  ( without  a  chorus),  the  chief 

aim  of  which  was  to  present  a  characteristic  picture  of 
ordinary  life,  and  to  assail  with  the  weapons  of  ridicule 
those  irregularities,  which  were  inaccessible  to  the  attacks 
of  graver  moralists.  The  most  successful  writer  of  this 
description  of  comedy  was  Menander,  the  model  of 
D  Plautus  and  Terence.  2.  Eloquence  lost  more  and 
more  its  political  character,  and  was  merely  cultivated  as 
an  art  in  the  schools  of  the  rhetoricians,  chiefly  at  Rhodes. 
3.  The  cultivation  of  philosophy  as  a  distinct  science 
occupied  the  attention  of  five  recently  established  schools. 

ggg      a.  The  Peripatt tic,  that  of  Aristotle  and  his  disciple  Theophrnstua 
(his  Ethics.)     b.  The  Epicurean,  founded  by  Epicurus,  which  repre- 


367,368.  §79.]       EUROPE.  —  GREECE.  187 


sented   pleasure  (Wovfi)  as  the  chief  end  of  man.     c.    The  Stoic,  (366) 
founded  by  Zenon  (Zeno),  which  recognized  real  good  only  in  virtue,  ^ 
and  enjoined  a    life    in    accordance  with   nature,     d.   The  Skeptic 
(founded  by  Pyrrhon  [Pyrrho]),  which  denied  certainty  of  notions 
received  through  the  senses,  or  formed  from  sensible  impressions  by 
reflection,     e.  The  New  Academy  (founded  by  Carneades),  which 
combated  the  Stoics  with  its  skeptical  eloquence. 

b.  Commerce.  The  principal  commercial  places,  after  367 
the  decline  of  Grecian  freedom,  were  Corinth,  Rhodes, 
and  Byzantium.     Articles  of  Asiatic  luxury,  which  had 
become  better  known  by  means  of  Alexander's  expedition, 
were  soon  eagerly  sought  after  by  Europeans. 


§  79.  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies. 
(B.  c.  323—30.) 

Flourishing  condition  ofthe  empire  under  the  368 
three  first  Ptolemies,  323— 221.  B 

Of  the  three  greater  empires  into  which  the  Mace- 
donian monarchy  was  divided  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, the  smallest,  but  for  that  very  reason,  the  most 
easily  tenable,  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Ptolemies.  They 
enjoyed  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  dispense  with  the 
satraps,  and  of  governing  an  unwarlike  people,  who,  having 
been  long  accustomed  to  a  foreign  and  often  oppressive 
dynasty,  were  little  disposed  to  take  offence  at  the  acces- 
sion of  a  foreign  race,  or  the  presence  of  Greek  and 
Macedonian  officers  in  the  army  and  at  court ;  especially 
as  the  new  rulers  treated  their  subjects  kindly,  and  re- 
spected their  religion,  constitution,  and  customs.  Notwith-  c 
standing,  however,  the  sagacity  displayed  by  the  three  first 
kings,  Ptolemy  Soter,2  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,1  and 
Ptolemy  Euergetes,8  in  their  endeavors  to  render 
Egypt,  and  particularly  their  Grseco- Macedonian  capital, 
Alexandria,  a  grand  emporium  for  the  commerce  of  the 
whole  world,  as  well  as  the  central  school  of  Grecian 
science  and  art,  their  foreign  policy  was  singularly  in- 
judicious and  unfortunate.  As  a  proof  of  this,  we  may 

1  A  surname  bestowed  on  him  by  the  Rhodians,  whom  he  had 
assisted  against  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

2  So  named,  because  he  married  his  own  sister  Arsinoe. 

3  Euergetes  [  =  the  benefactor]  was  a  surname  given  to  Ptolemy 
by  the  priests,  for  having  brought  back  the  images  of  the  Egyptian 
gods  from  Asia. 


188  EUROPE.— GREECE.       [369—371.    §79. 

(368)  mention  the  stupid  obstinacy  with  which  they  persisted  in 
A  their  endeavors  to  add  the  desirable,  but  by  no  means  in- 
dispensable, neighboring  districts  of  Ccele-Syria,  Phre- 
nicia,  Palestine,  and  even  Asia  Minor,  to  Egypt,  Gyrene, 
and  Cyprus,  which  they  possessed,  the  first  by  right  of 
conquest,  the  last  in  virtue  of  a  treaty.  Their  per- 
severance  in  this  line  of  policy  not  only  involved  them  in 
frequent  quarrels  with  the  Seleucidoe,  but  rendered  the 
revival  of  the  satrapy- system  indispensable  in  the  con- 
quered districts. 

369  In  order  to  facilitate  the  commerce  between  India  and  the 
B  Mediterranean,  Ptolemy  Philadelphia  completed    a  canal  from 

the  Red  Sea  to  the  Nile,  which  had  been  commenced  by  Necho  (see 
§  92),  and  continued  by  Darius  Hystaspes.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  little  use  was  made  of  this  mode  of  communication,  until 
the  time  of  the  Arabian  Caliphs,  it  being  considered  safer  on  account 
of  the  numerous  reefs  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Arabian  gulf  to  ship 
only  as  far  as  the  ports  of  Berenice  and  Myos  Hormos  (both  founded 
by  the  above-mentioned  king),  where  the  cargoes  were  discharged 
and  conveyed  on  camels  to  Coptus,  and  thence  forwarded  by  canal 
to  the  Nile.  Thus  Egypt  became  a  principal  emporium  for  the 
Indian  and  Arabian  trade,  an  advantage  which  it  in  a  great  measure 
retained  until  the  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

370  B.  Decline  and  fall  of  the  Empire,  B.  c.  221 — 
c30. 

The  decline  of  the  Egyptian  empire  dates  its  com- 
mencement from  the  reign  of  the  luxurious  tyrant  Ptolemy 
IV.  Philopator.  From  this  time  portion  after  portion  of 
the  foreign  possessions  acquired  by  the  swords  of  their 
ancestors  was  wrested  from  the  feeble  hands  of  successive 
sovereigns,  who  gave  themselves  up  to  effeminacy  and 
debauchery,  leaving  the  administration  of  public  affairs  to 
their  favorites ;  whilst  the  people,  goaded  to  madness  by 
the  oppressive  government,  made  repeated  attempts  to 
shake  off  the  yoke  of  a  foreign  dynasty,  and  a  disputed 
succession  furnished  the  Romans  with  an  excuse  for  inter- 
vention, and  finally  for  the  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom 
(comp.  6  125).  Caesar's  Alexandrian  war  against  Ptolemy 
D  XIII.  Dionysus,  at  the  instigation  of  Cleopatra  (see 
§  148, 1).  War  of  Augustus  against  Cleopatra  and  Mark 
Antony  (see  §  154).  Egypt  a  Roman  province,  B.  c.  30. 

371  C.  Alexandrian  Literature. 

From  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  or  rather  from 


372 — 374.  §  79.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  189 

the    establishment   of   the    Alexandrian    Museum    by  (371) 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  the  new  capital  of  Egypt  took  the  A 
place  of  Athens  as  the  seat  of  Grecian  learning,  the  object 
and  character  of  which  were  however  materially  altered 
by  its  transplantation  to  a  different  quarter  of  the  globe. 
The  creative  arts,  as  well  as  poetry  and  rhetoric,  mani- 
festly declined,  whilst  scientific  subjects  were  treated  more 
profoundly  and  systematically. 

1.  Poetry.      The  Alexandrian  poets  are  deficient  in  372 
poetic  genius,  imagination,  and  not  unfrequently  taste  in  B 
the  choice  and  treatment  of  their  subject,    In  tragedy,  we 
have  the  "  seven  stars,"  as  they  are  called,  in  lyric  poetry 
Callimachus  (elegies),  in  epic  Apollonius  Rhodius  (the 
Argonautica),  in  didactic  poetry  Aratus,  and  in  Bucolic 
(which  now  first  developed  itself)  Theocritus  (thirty  of  his 
Idylls  are  extant),  Bion,  and  Moschus. 

2.  Grammar,  in  conjunction  with  criticism  and  the  373 
interpretation  of  the  ancient  writers  (philology  in  short), 
was  first  raised  in  this  century  to  the  position  of  a  sub- 
stantive science  by  the  Alexandrian  grammarians,  who 
selected  the  best  productions  of  Grecian  literature,  formed 
them  into  a  canon,   and  corrected  the  text,  which  they 
illustrated   with   grammatical,    historical,   and  oesthetical 
comments.     The  most  celebrated  grammarians  were  Zeno- 
dotus  of  Ephesus  (about   280),  and   his  -disciple  Aristo- 
phanes of  Byzantium  (about  240),  who  arranged  the  first 
canon  of  classic  writers.     His  pupil  Aristarchus  (about  c 
180)    was   considered   the   most    distinguished   critic   of 
antiquity.      His   "  Recension  "   of  Homer's  poems  (the 
division  of  which  into  twenty-four  cantos  is  ascribed  to 
him)  forms  the  ground-work  of  the  text  which  we  now 


Mathematics  also,  which   had   hitherto  been  considered  only  a  374 
branch  of  philosophy,  first  began  to  be  treated  systematically  during 
this  period,  principally  by  Euclid  (his  "  Elements"),  Ctesibius  (in- 
ventor of  the  water-organ},  Apollonius  of  Perga  (Conic  Sections),  a 
pupil  of  Archimedes  of  Syracuse,  the  founder  of  Statics. 

The  first  scientific  systems  of  astronomy  and  geography  were  esta- 
blished at  Alexandria  by  Eratosthenes  (y£wypa<£«ru  in  three  books). 

Philosophy  was  eagerly  cultivated  here  in  the  second  century  by 
the  Eclectics,  who  selected  from  different  systems  whatever  they 
considered  most  worthy  of  their  attention. 


190  EUROPE. GREECE.        [375.  §  80. 


§  80.    The  Syrian  Empire  under  the  SeleucicUz.* 
(312—64). 

375  Seleucus,  satrap  of  Babylon,  being  summoned  by 
A  Antigonus  to  give  an  account  of  his  administration,  had 
fled  into  Egypt ;  but  in  the  year  312  returned  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  Egyptian  auxiliaries  to  Babylon,  which  he 
defended  successfully  against  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Anti- 
gonus, and  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  Babylo- 
nia, Media,  Susiana,  and  some  of  the  neighboring  districts. 
By  his  victory  at  Ipsus  (p.  182)  he  became  master  of  the 
principal  countries  governed  by  Antigonus,  and,  after  the 
defeat  and  death  of  that  monarch  (282),  of  his  Asiatic 
B  dominions  also.  Thus  the  Syrian  empire  comprised  all 
the  Asiatic  countries  which  had  belonged  to  the  monarchy 
of  Alexander  the  Great  (Ccele-Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Phoenicia,  were  soon  lost  to  the  Egyptians),  with  more 
natural  boundaries  than  that  monarchy  had  ever  possessed. 
Instead  of  availing  themselves  of  such  a  favorable  position 
of  affairs,  the  Selucidoe  endeavored  to  restore  the  unna- 
tural connection  with  Europe,  and  to  establish  a  Grseco- 
Macedonian  dominion  in  newly-built  cities2  on  the  western 
frontier,  instead  of  rendering  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  their 
friends,  by  the  establishment  of  a  purely  oriental  system 
of  government  in  the  capital  of  their  empire  (Susa,  Baby- 
c  ion,  Ecbatana),  and  thence  throughout  the  provinces.  In 
consequence  of  this  policy  the  people  of  the  west  were 
estranged,  the  more  distant  north-eastern  provinces  (Par- 
thia  and  Bactria)  soon  revolted,  the  chieftains  of  northern 
Asia  Minor,  whom  Alexander  had  been  unable  to  subdue, 
not  only  retained  their  independence,  but  extended  theh 
dominions,  and  even  Grecian  satraps,  renouncing  their 
allegiance  to  the  effeminate  and  debauched  successors  of 
Seleucus,  made  themselves  masters  of  those  portions  of 

1  Succession  of  the  kings:  Seleucus  Nicator,  Antiochus  I.  Soter, 
Antiochus  II.  Theos,  Seleucus  II.  Callinicus,  Seleucus  III.  Ceraunus, 
Antiochus  III.  the  Great,  Seleucus  Philopator,  Antiochus  IV.  Epi- 
phanes,  Antiochus  V.  Eupator,  Demetrius  I.,  &c.,  &c. 

*  Among  these  were  seventeen  Antiochs,  so  named  after  the  father 
of  Seleucus. 


376.    §80.]  EUROPE. GREECE.  191 

Asia  Minor,  which  had  not  already  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Egyptians. 

The  ruin  of  the  declining  empire  was  for  a  time  averted  376 
byAntiochusIII.,  surnarned  the  Great  (224 — 187),  who  A 
even  endeavored  to  re-establish  it  in  all  its  integrity. 
His  first  attempt  was  to  wrest  their  Asiatic  conquests  from 
the  Ptolemies,  and  when  this  failed,  he  undertook  the 
veconquest  of  Parthia  and  Bactria.  The  Parthians,  who 
had  spread  as  far  as  Media,  and  perhaps  to  the  other  side 
of  the  Tigris,  were  again  confined  to  Parthia  and  Hyr- 
cania ;  but  Antiochus  was  compelled  to  recognize  their 
independence  as  well  as  that  of  the  Bactrians,  and  return 
to  the  west  with  the  conviction,  that  so  far  from  there  being 
an  opening  for  fresh  conquests  in  the  north- western  portion 
of  the  Persian  empire,  it  would  be  difficult  to  retain  even 
the  territory  which  he  already  possessed  in  that  quarter.  B 
The  war  against  the  weak  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  was  now 
renewed  with  better  success,  almost  all  the  cities  of  Coele- 
Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine  becoming  Syrian.  Scarcely 
however  had  Antiochus  re-established  his  authority  over 
the  countries  on  the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  (which  had  revolted,  partly  to  the  Ptolemies  and 
partly  to  the  kings  of  Pergamus),  and  well-nigh  completed 
their  subjugation,  when  the  Romans,  who  ever  since  the  hu- 
miliation of  Philip  of  Macedonia  had  been  seeking  a  pretext 
for  war  with  Syria,  issued  a  proclamation,  in  which  they 
declared  that  all  the  Greeks  of  Asia  were  free  and  inde- 
pendent. Antiochus,  deceived  as  he  was,  and  at  a  later  c 
period  annoyed  and  insulted,  by  the  Romans,  still  strove 
by  every  means  in  his  power  to  avoid  a  war ;  but  finding 
all  his  endeavors  unavailing,  he  allowed  himself  to  be 
persuaded  by  the  ^Etolians  to  visit  Greece,  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a  Symmachy  between  Syria,  Macedonia,  and 
all  the  Grecian  states,  and  thus  checking  the  aggressive 
movements  of  Rome  in  the  east.  Even  here,  however,  he 
found  himself  miserably  deceived  ;  for  Philip  of  Mace-  D 
donia  was  soon  seduced  by  the  fair  promises  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  Greeks,  partly  through  fear,  partly 
because  they  had  persuaded  themselves  that  the  Romans 
were  the  real  protectors  of  their  liberties,  were  slow  in 
joining  the  confederacy,  whilst  the  Achoeans  replied  to  his 


192  EUROPE.— GREECE.  [377.    §80. 

(376)  proposals  by  a  declaration  of  war,  which  was  soon  fol- 

A  lowed  by  a  similar  proceeding  on  the  part  of  the  Romans. 
Under  these  unfavorable  circumstances  Antiochus,  instead 
of  returning  at  once  into  Asia  and  there  joining  the  forces 
assembled  in  the  interior  of  his  kingdom,  still  lingered  in 
Greece  in  a  state  of  miserable  indecision,  until  a  defeat  at 
Thermopylae  compelled  him  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 
The  Romans  followed  him  into  Asia,  and  having  gained  a 
second  battle  at.  Magnesia  on  the  Sipylus,  compelled  him 
to  pay  15,000  talents,  deliver  up  his  fleet  and  elephants, 
and  renounce  all  claim  to  the  portion  of  Asia  Minor  within 

B  the  Taurus  ;  a  district  which  they  divided  provisionally 
between  their  allies,  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  and  the 
republic  of  Rhodes.  The  satraps  of  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Armenia  availed  themselves  of  this  crisis  to  refuse 
the  further  payment  of  tribute,  and  renounce  their  alle- 
giance to  the  Seleucidae. 
377  After  the  death  of  Antiochus  III.,  two  causes  slowly 

c  but  surely  undermined  the  empire  of  the  Seleucidae: — 1. 
The  increasing  prevalence  of  the  eastern  spirit  over  the 
Grecism  of  the  Seleucidae,  aided  as  it  was  by  the  advance 
of  the  Parthians  westwards,  and  of  the  Bactrians  towards 
the  south-east.  2.  The  policy  of  the  Romans,  who  fos- 
tered the  mutual  disgust  of  the  Ptolemies,  Seleucidoe,  and 
the  kings  of  Asia  Minor,  and  thus  not  only  withheld  them 
from  uniting  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the  aggres- 
sions of  Rome,  but  reduced  them  to  such  a  miserable  state 
of  weakness,  as  rendered  the  conquest  of  their  country  a 

D  work  of  little  difficulty.  King  Antiochus  IV.  Epi- 
phanes  so  little  understood  his  position,  that  when  the 
Romans  attacked  Perseus  of  Macedonia,  instead  of  uniting 
with  that  monarch  to  oppose  Rome  as  the  common  enemy, 
he  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  reconquer  the 
provinces  of  Coele-Syria,  Palestine,  and  Phoenicia,  which 
had  again  revolted,  and  even  to  make  himself  master  of 
the  whole  of  Egypt  except  the  capital.  The  Ptolemies 
appealed  to  the  Romans,  who  compelled  Antiochus  to 
disgorge  his  Egyptian  conquest.  In  Palestine  he  found, 
besides  the  Israelites,  who  jealously  observed  the  law  and 
supported  the  Ptolemies,  an  innovating  Grecizing  party, 
by  whom  he  was  persuaded  to  persecute  those  who 


378,370.  §81.]       EUROPE. — GREECE.  193 

adhered  to  the  ancient  faith.     This  treatment  occasioned  (377) 
their   defection   from  the   Syrian  monarchy.1     Compare  A 
§  81,  6. 

Under  his  feeble  successors,  most  of  whom  bore  the 
name  of  Antiochus,  and  were  continually  subject  to 
humiliation  and  annoyance  from  the  Romans,  the  kingdom, 
which  no  longer  extended  eastwards  over  Babylonia  and 
Mesopotamia,  was  shaken  to  its  foundation  by  disputes 
respecting  the  succession  to  the  throne,  which  were  kept 
alive  by  the  Romans.  At  length,  in  the  year  sixty-four, 
the  Syrian  empire,  already  limited  to  Syria  Proper  by  the 
conquests  of  the  Parthians,  was  reduced  by  Cn.  Pompeius 
to  the  condition  of  a  Roman  province. 

§  81.  Kingdoms  which  revolted  from  the  Syrian  dominion. 

1.  Pergamus    (Pergamos)    (283—180),    Philetcerus,  378 
lieutenant  of  Lysimachus  in  Pergamus,  revolted  to  Seleu-  B 
cus  Nicator,  and  during  the  disturbances  which  followed  his 
assassination,  made  himself  independent  by  the  aid  of  a  band 

of  mercenaries.  His  successors  assumed  the  title  of  k  i  n  g, 
and  extended  their  dominions.  Eumenes  II.  supported 
the  Romans  in  their  war  against  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria, 
and  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  received  the  greater  portion 
of  that  monarch's  possessions  in  Asia  Minor.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  celebrated  library  of*Pergamus  (which  was 
afterwards  presented  to  Cleopatra  by  M.  Antony),  and  the 
first  who  patronized  the  manufacture  of  parchment  (perga- 
mena  charta).  His  next  successor  but  one,  Attains  III.,  c 
a  prince  of  weak  intellect,  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the 
Romans,  who  converted  it  into  a  Roman  province  under 
the  name  of  Asia  Propria.  One  Aristomcus,  who  had  set 
up  a  claim  to  the  throne,  was  overthrown  by  the  consul 
Perperna.  Compare  §  132. 

2.  In  Gal  at  i  a,  three  Gallic  tribes,  who  had  migrated  379 
to  Asia  Minor,  were  presented  by  Nicomedes,  king  of  D 
Bithynia   and  Paphlagonia,  with  allotments  of  land,  on 
which  they  lived,  under  the  government  of  four  tetrarchs, 

of  whom  Deiotarus  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  of 
king,  and  was  invested  by  Caesar  with  the  sovereignty  of 

1  [Antiochus  Epiphanes,  as  the  fiercest  persecutor  of  God's  people, 
s  the  great  type  of  the  Antichrist.] 


194  EUROPE.— GREECE.       [380—382.    §81. 

the  whole  country.     It  was  made  a  Roman  province  by 
Augustus  (25  B.  c.). 

380  3.  Parthia.     a.  Under  the  Arsadda  256  (?)  B.  c.  to 
A  A.  D.  226.     Agathocles,  the  universally  unpopular  Syrian 

satrap,  was  assassinated  by  Arsaces,  who  founded  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom,  which  was  extended  by  his  successors 
over  all  the  countries  between  the  Euphrates,  Indus,  and 
Oxus.  Residences:  Ctesiphon  and  Seleucia  on  the 
Tigris.  The  victory  of  Arsaces  XIV.  over  the  Roman 
Triumvir  Crassus  was  followed  by  frequent  wars  with  the 
Romans,  occasioned  principally  by  disputed  successions  in 
Armenia.  Arsaces  XXX.  (called  also  Artabanus  IV.)  was 
deposed  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  226  by  a  Persian  named 
B  Artaxerxes,  son  of  Sassan.  With  this  Artaxerxes  begins 
b.  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanidce.  or  new  Persian  empire, 
226 — 651.  Narses  (297)  was  deprived  by  the  Roman 
emperor  Galerius,  of  Mesopotamia,  five  provinces  on  the 
other  side  the  Tigris,  and  the  sovereignty  of  Armenia  and 
Iberia — but  the  five  provinces  were  restored  by  the 
emperor  Jovian. 

381  4.  Bactria,  which  revolted  from  the  Syrian  monarchy 
c  at  the  same  time  as  Parthia,  formed  an  independent  king- 
dom, until  Arsaces  VI.  united  the  province  of  Bactria 
with  that  of  Parthia,  whilst  other  conquerors  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  other  component  parts  of  the  Bac- 
trian  kingdom.  , 

382  5.  Armenia.    A fter  the  unfortunate  wars  of  Antiochus 
the  Great,  both  the  governors  of  Armenia  revolted  (189), 
and  assuming  the  royal  title  divided  the  country  between 
them.     a.  The  Greater  Armenia.     Among  the  kings  the 
most  worthy  of  notice  is  Tigranes  I.,  who  ruled  at  the 
same  time  over  Syria,  the  Lesser  Armenia,  and  Cappa- 
docia ;  but  having  formed  an  alliance  with  his  father-in- 
law  IVfithridates  VI.,  king  of  Pontus,  he  was  attacked  by 
the  Romans,  and  his  sovereignty  restricted  to  the  Greater 

D  Armenia.  At  a  later  period,  the  succession  to  the  throne 
furnished  a  subject  for  contention  between  the  Romans 
and  Parthians.  Trajan  conquered  Armenia  in  106,  and 
reduced  it  to  the  condition  of  a  Roman  province,  but  the 
government  was  again  vested  in  native  princes  (subject  to 
the  supremacy  of  Rome),  by  the 'emperor  Hadrian  in  117. 
Finally,  Armenia  became  a  part  of  the  new  Persian 


383 — 385.  §81.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  195 

empire  (412).     b.  The  Lesser  Armenia,  ruled  by  its  own  (382) 
kings  until  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  Tigranes  I.    It  A 
fell  subsequently  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  by  whom 
it  was  alternately  conferred  on  some  neighboring  king,  or 
merged  in  the  Roman  province  of  Cappadocia. 

6.  Palsestina.  383 

a.  Dependent  on   the  Ptolemies  and   Seleucida  323 — 
167.     At  the  division  of  the  kingdom  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  the    Great,  Palestine   fell   to   the   lot   of  the 
governor  of  Syria,  but  was  soon  conquered  by  Ptolemy  I., 
who  transported  a  colony  of  Jews  to  Alexandria,  where 
the  Seventy  translated  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  [the 
Septuagint].    In  the  war  of  Antiochus  the  Great  against  the  B 
Egyptians,  the  Jews,  weary  of  Egyptian  rule,  attached  them- 
selves to  the  king  of  Syria,  and  remained  subject  to  the  Se- 
leucidse  from  the  year  203  to  the  reign  of  Antiochus  IV. 
Epiphanes  ;  when  the  people,  enraged  at  the  sale  of  their 
high  priesthood  to  the  Grecizing  party,  and  the  attempts  of 
the  king  to  enforce  attendance  on  the  idolatrous  worship 
of  Greece,  took  up  arms  under  the  command  of  Mattathias, 

a  priest  of  the  race  of  the  Asmoneans,  and  his  five  sons,  of 
whom  Judas  Maccabaeus  was  the  most  renowned. 

b.  Under  the  Asmoneans  or  Maccabees,  167 — 39.     The  384 
Jews,  whose  success  was  promoted  by  the  family  quarrels  3 
of  the  Seleucidse,  maintained  their  independence  during  a 
period  of  nearly  forty  years,  167 — 130.     At  length,  Simon 
Thassi,  the  son  of  Mattathias,  was  recognized  by  Deme- 
trius as  high-priest  and  independent  prince  of  Judeea,  and 

his  grandson  Aristobulus  assumed  the  title  of  king  (in 
107).  Under  his  successors  the  struggles  of  the  two  sects 
of  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  prepared  the  way  for  the 
dependence  of  their  country  on  Rome ;  Hyrcanus,  the 
leader  of  the  Pharisaic  party  having  called  in  Pompey, 
who  wrested  Jerusalem  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Sadducees, 
and  promoted  Hyrcanus  to  the  high-priesthood,  but  at  the 
same  time  compelled  the  little  state  of  Judsea  to  pay  a 
tribute  to  the  Roman  exchequer. 

The  Pharisees,  in  addition  to  the  written  law  of  Moses,  recognized  385 
the  authority  of  tradition,  and  believed  in  predestination.     They  also  D 
held  the  [true]  doctrines  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  ex- 
istence of  angels.     The  Suddurees  on  the  contrary  rejected  all  these 
doctrines.     A  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  the  Esscnes,  were  distinguished 
by  the  ascetic  severity  of  their  discipline. 


196  EUROPE. GREECE.    [386,  387.  §  81. 

(385)  As  the  new  high-priest  troubled  himself  very  little 
A  about  the  administration  of  public  affairs,  the  supreme 
authority  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  favorite  of  the  emperor's 
named  Antipater,  a  native  of  Idumaea,  who  placed  his  son, 
a  lad  of  fifteen,  over  the  province  of  Galilee.  This  son, 
whose  name  was  Herod,  being  supported  by  the  Romans, 
was  enabled  to  bid  defiance  to  the  enmity  of  the  Pharisees, 
and  in  the  year  B.  c.  39,  was  proclaimed  by  the  Triumviri 
king  of  Judaea. 

386  r.  Under  the  Herodians  from  B.  c.  39  to  A.  D.  70. 
The  government  of  Herod  the  Great  (!),  imposed  as  it 
was  on  the  country  by  the  swords  of  a  foreign  power,  was 

B  of  course  hateful  to  every  Jewish  patriot.  His  poJicy, 
therefore,  during  a  tyrannical  reign  of  thirty-seven  years, 
was  to  ally  himself  closely  to  the  Romans,  and  endeavor 
by  every  means  in  his  power  to  root  out  the  ancient 
Jewish  customs  and  institutions. 

In  the  last  year  but  one  of  his  reign,  four  years  before 
the  commencement  of  our  epoch,1  JESUS  CHRIST  was  born 
at  Bethlehem.  After  the  three  sons  of  Herod  had  reigned 
a  short  time,  Judaea  was  included  in  the  Roman  province 
of  Syria,  retaining  however  its  own  procurators  or  gov- 
ernors. Of  these,  the  most  notorious  was  Pontius  Pilate 
[Pontius  Pilatus],  under  whom  our  blessed  Lord  suffered 
in  the  year  30. 

387  Under  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  a  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  who 
had  rendered  important  services  to  the  emperor  Claudius,  Palestine 

C  was  again  a  kingdom  for  three  years  ;  but  after  his  death  it  became 
as  before  a  Roman  province,  administered  by  procurators.  At  a 
later  period  (A.  D.  53)  a  small  portion  of  the  country  was  ruled  by 
the  last  of  the  Herodians,  king  Agrippa  II.,  a  son  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I. 

An  insurrection,  occasioned  by  the  severity  of  these 
governors  (A.  D.  66),  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  city 
by  Titus  [as  the  instrument  by  which  the  righteous  judg- 
ment of  the  Almighty  was  executed]  in  the  year  70; 
1,100,000  Jews,  who  had  come  up  to  the  feast  of  the  Pass- 
over, losing  their  lives  by  famine,  pestilence,  and  the  sword. 
The  Roman  governor  now  transferred  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Samaria.  The  settlement  of  a  colony  on  the  site 
of  Jerusalem,  and  erection  of  a  temple  of  Jupiter  Capito- 

1  [Mr.  Browne  places  it  in  B.  c.  5.     Ordo  Saclorum,  p.  36.] 


388,  389.  §  82,  83.]     EUROPE. — GREECE.  197 

linus  by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  occasioned  another  general  (387) 
insurrection  of  the  Jews  (A.  D.  133),  of  whom  more  than  A 
half  a  million  lost  their  lives ;  but  in  spite  of  this  opposi- 
tion, the  new  city  of  jElia  Capitolina  rose  on  the  ruins  of 
Jerusalem.     Dispersion  of  the  Jews. 

§  82.   The  Kingdom  of  Pontus. 

Pontus,  which  had  been  a  Persian  satrapy  from  the  time  388 
of  Darius  I.,  became  independent  in  the  general  insurrec- 
tion of  the  satraps  against  Artaxerxes  II.  The  Pontic 
king,  Mithridates  II.,  submitted  to  Alexander  the  Great ; 
but  expelled  Antigonus,  to  whom  Pontus  had  been  assigned 
in  the  partition  of  the  kingdom.  The  last  king,  Mithrida-  u 
tes  VI.,  or  "the  Great,"  a  man  of  learning  and  an  author, 
subdued  Colchis,  extended  his  empire  as  far  as  Armenia, 
and  was  thrice  involved  in  war  with  the  Romans  in 
consequence  of  his  conquests  in  Asia  Minor  (87 — 84; 
83 — 81 ;  74 — 64),  see  §§  138  and  143.  His  own  son 
Pharnaces,  to  whom  he  was  at  last  compelled  to  fly  for  pro- 
tection, having  seduced  his  troops,  Mithridates  laid  violent 
hands  on  fyimself.  The  central  portion  of  Pontus  was  in- 
corporated into  the  Roman  province  of  Bithynia,  but  at  a 
later  period  conferred,  together  with  the  eastern  district, 
on  a  grandson  of  Mithridates  (Polemo).  Finally,  both  c 
countries  became  Roman  provinces  in  the  reign  of  Nero ; 
the  western  portion,  which  bordered  on  Galatia,  being  con- 
ferred on  the  Galatian  prince  Deiotarus. 

§  83.  Bithynia  and  Cappadocia. 

In  both  provinces  the  Persian  satraps  assumed  the  title  389 
of  king,  and  maintained  their  independence  against  the 
Macedonians.  Among  the  Bithynian  kings,  the  best 
known  are  Prusias  II.,  at  whose  court  Hannibal  sought  ah 
asylum  ;  and  Nicomedes  III.,  who  was  expelled  by  Mith- 
ridates VI.,  but  restored  by  the  Romans,  to  whom  he  be- 
queathed his  kingdom  (B.  c.  75). 

Cappadocia,  after  the  death  of  her  last  king  ( Archelaus),  D 
who  was   inveigled  to  Rome  by  the  emperor   Tiberius 
(A.  D.  18),  became  a  distinct  province  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire.     The  manner  of  his  death  is  not  known. 


193  EUROPE.— ROME.      [390—393.  §83. 

IV.  THE  ROMANS. 
Sources  of  Information. 

390  «•  The  most  ancient  authorities,  Roman  history  commences  with  a 
.  few  detached  and  meagre  records ;  among  which  the  most  important 
are,  1.  The  A/males  Maximior  Pontificum,  which  originated  in  the 
yearly  registration  of  magistrates,  with  a  short  notice  of  the  most 
important  events  of  each  year,  inscribed  at  the  end  of  the  year  on  a 
white  tablet,  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  in  whose  house  it  was  hung 
ip  for  public  inspection.  This  practice  continued  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  days  of  the  Gracchi.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that 
the  annals  of  events  antecedent  to  the  storming  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls,  were  partially  destroyed  when  the  city  was  burnt,  and  per- 
haps replaced  by  others  at  a  later  period.  2.  The  Fasti  Capitotini, 
or  Consular  Fasti,  a  list  of  the  Consuls  to  the  time  of  Augustus,  in 
whose  reign  this  record  was  compiled  from  ancient  authorities.  It 
was  found  at  Rome  in  1547,  and  has  very  recently  been  augmented 
B  by  fresh  discoveries.  3.  The  Laudes  funebres,  or  funeral  orations,  in 
which  triumphs,  consulates,  &c.,  often  imaginary,  were  ascribed  to 
the  ancient  Romans,  and  thence  transferred  to  history. 

39  j  b.  The  Annalists,  whose  numerous  works  are  lost,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  passages  cited  by  more  recent  authors.  The  most 
ancient  are  Q  Fabius  Pictor  and  L.  Cincius  Alimcntus ;  both  of 
whom  served  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and  wrote  a  history  of  their 
own  tunes,  with  an  introductory  essay  on  the  earlier  history  of  Rome. 
A  few  years  later  we  have  a  metrical  history,  in  eighteen  books, 
under  the  title  of  "  Annales,"  by  Q.  Ennius,  who  brings  down  the 
narrative  to  his  own  times ;  and  a  treatise  (Origines)  on  the  same 
subject,  in  seven  books,  brought  down  to  the  year  151,  with  profound 
criticisms,  by  M.  Porcius  Cato  Censorius.  The  most  shameless  fal- 
sifier of  history,  especially  of  numbers,  was  Valerius  Anlias. 

392  c.  Historian*. 

aa.  In  the  Greek  language,  the  chief  authority  for  the  more 
important  events  of  Roman  history,  between  the  years  220  and  157, 
is  Polybius.  The  fragments  which  we  possess  of  Diodorus  Siculus 
are  mere  detached  notices,  reaching  only  to  the  year  302,  and  often 
unworthy  of  credit.  Dionysius,  in  his  'Apx«"o>>oyia  'Poj//uiv»;  (in 
twenty  books,  of  which  one  to  eleven  are  extant),  gives  an  account 
of  the  earliest  history  and  constitution  of  Rome.  Ajtpian  ( Appianus), 
a  principal  authority  for  the  times  immediately  following  the  second 
Punic  war,  and  for  the  civil  wars.  Dio  Cassius,  of  whose  works  frag- 
ments are  extant,  comprehending  the  period  between  B.  c.  87  and  8. 
J  If /ad  mn  (Herodianus) — History  of  his  own  times  from  A.  D.  180  to 
238.  Zondras,  in  the  twelfth  century,  wrote  a  xpnvirfv  of  events 
frqm  the  beginning  of  things  to  the  year  1118.  Plutarch's  /?joi 
jrapaXXnX"*  contain  the  lives  of  twenty-two  celebrated  Romans. 

393  bb.  In  Latin — <i.  Writers  who  bring  down  the  Roman 
hifitory  from  the  commencement  to  their  own  times. — 

D  1.  Titug  LiriiiK  [called  by  us,  Livy]  (born  at  Padua  B.  c  58,  died  there 
A.  D.  19).  Of  his  "  Annales"  (in  142  books)  we  possess  unmutilatcd 
only  books  1 — 10  (authorities  for  the  period  between  753 — 293),  and 


394 — 396.  §83.]   EUROPE. — ROME.  199 

21—45  (218—167).     2.  C.  Velleius  Paterculus  (in  the  first  century  (391) 
of  the  Christian  nera).     In  his  Histories  Romano;  libri  ii.,  we  have  a  ^ 
brief  outline  of  universal  history,  with  especial  reference  to  the  Ro- 
mans (to  A.  D.  3D).     3.  L.  Auuaeus  Ftorus  (probably  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan).     His  Rerum  Romauaruui  libri  iv.,  bring  down  the  history 
from  the  building  of  Rome  to  the  reign  of  Augustus    u  c    '.vl        4 
£ulropius  (in  the  fou.th  i vuuiry;  wrote  a  Brevianum  ili.stor.  Rom. 
from  the  building  of  iio:ae  to  tlie  reign  of  Valens      We  limi  al.w;     . 
notices  of  Roman  affurs,  down  to  the  reign  of  Augustus,  111  the  His- 
toriae  Philippic®  (forty-tour  books)  of  Trogus  Pumpeius,  of  which 
there  exist  merely  a  tew  extracts  in  the  works  of  Justin  [Justinus]. 

0.  Writers  who  treat  of  particular  portions  of  Roman  394 
history. — 1.  C.  Julius  Casar  (99 — 44)  describes  his  campaigns  in  B 
Gaul  in  his  Commentarii  de  Bello  Gallico  (eight  books),  and  his  war 
with  Pompey  and  his  party  in  the  Commentarii  de  Bello  Civili  (three 
books).  2.  C.  Sallusttus  Crispus  (86 — 35).  His  Bellum  Catilinarium 
and  Bellum  Jugurthinum  are  entire  ;  but  we  possess  only  a  few 
fragments  of  the  Histor.,  lib.  vi.  [79 — 67).  3.  C.  Cornelius  Tacitus 
(somewhere  between  A.  D.  152 — 130?).  Portions  only  are  extant  of 
his  Historiarum  Libri  (6rS — 96)  and  Annales,  in  sixteen  books  (14 — 
68).  Ammianus  Maicellinus  (about  A  D.  400).  Of  his  Rerum  Ges- 
tarum  libri  xxxi  (A.  D.  91 — 378),  we  possess  only  eighteen  (35^ — 
378),  the  last  and  the  most  important. 

y.  Biographers. — 1.  Cornelius  Nepos  (in  the  first  century  of  395 
the  Christian  eera),  whose  lives  of  Hannibal,  Cato,  and  Atticus  c 
(from  his  "  Vitae  Excellentium  Imperatorum"),  belong  to  Roman 
history.  2.  C.  Cornelius  Tacitus — Vita  Agricolae.  3.  C.  Suetonius 
Tranquillus  (about  A.  D.  100),  Vita3  XII.  Imperatorum  (Caesar  to 
Domitian).  4.  Script  ores  Historic  Augusta  ;  a  collection  of  thirty- 
four  biographies  of  Roman  emperors  (from  Hadrian  to  Carus  and 
his  sons,  or  from  117  to  285),  by  six  different  authors.  5.  S.  Au- 
relius  Victor  (in  the  fourth  century),  De  Viris  Illustribus  Romae  and 
de  Caesaribus.  We  have  a  collection  of  interesting  traits  of  cha- 
racter and  anecdotes  in  the  "  Factorum  Dictorumque  Memora- 
bilium"  libri  ix.,  of  Valerius  Maximus  (in  the  reign  of  Tiberius). 
Besides  the  historians,  we  may  consult  Cicero's  books,  De  Republic^, 
(only  two  of  the  six  remain,  and  those  in  an  imperfect  state),  and 
the  three  books,  De  Legibus,  for  the  history  of  the  earlier  consti- 
tution ;  and  his  letters  for  that  of  his  own  times.  Among  the 
geographers,  the  first  place  must  be  assigned  to  Strabo  (5  and  6 
books). 

Modern   Authorities. 

The  Roman  histories  of  the  early  modern  writers  are  mere  com-  396 
pilations  from  the  works  of  ancient  historians,  without  any  attempt  D 
at  testing  the  credibility  and  value  of  their  testimony.     After  this 
fashion,  Freinshemius  (Supplementa  Livii,  1654)  tried  to  replace  the 
lost  books  of  Livy.     The  first  writer  who  applied  the  rules  of  criti- 
cism to  Roman  history  was  Jac.  Perizonius,  whose  masterly  investi- 
gations (Animadversiones  Historicse,  1685)  soon  fell  into  unmerited 
oblivion  ;    whilst,   on   the    other   hand,    the   skepticism   of    L.    de 
Beaufort   (sur  1'Incertitude  des  cinq  premiers  Siecles  de  1'Histoire 
10 


200  EUROPE. ITALY.  [397.    §84. 

(396)  Romaine,  1750),  though  it  is  here  and  there  carried  too  far,  enjoyed 
A  in  its  day  considerable  reputation  and  influence.  In  the  same  spirit 
of  mere  negation,  Levesque  wrote  his  Histoire  critique  de  la  Rdpub- 
lique  Romaine  (1807).  Edward  Gibbon's  "  History  of  the  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  from  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
sera  to  the  downfall  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  is  a  work  distinguished 
by  critical  acuteness  and  the  surpassing  beauty  of  the  narrative.1  An 
entirely  new  epoch,  as  regards  the  treatment  of  Roman  history,  began 
with  the  publication  of  B.  G.  Niebuhr's  "  Roman  History"  (two  parts, 
1811  and  12  ;  a  second  edition,  carefully  revised  and  corrected,  was 
published  in  1827  and  1830,  followed  in  1832  by  a  third  part,  bringing 
down  the  history  to  the  end  of  the  first  Punic  war  ;  fourth  edit.,  one 
B  vol.,  in  1834  [translated  into  English  by  Hare  and  Thirl  wall,  vol.  iii. 
by  Dr.  Schmitz]).  In  this  work,  the  historian  not  only  proves  the 
untenable  character  of  those  statements  which  formerly  passed  for 
Roman  history,  but  also  selects,  with  great  critical  acuteness,  from  the 
mass  of  legends,  conjectures,  and  forgeries,  all  that  deserves  the  name 
of  unfalsified  fact ;  and  on  this  foundation  essays  to  build  a  critical 
history  of  Rome.  Niebuhr's  Rome  has  been  very  well  abridged  by 
Twiss  (Oxford,  1845).  A  full  course  of  Roman  history  down  to 
Constantine  will  be  found  in  Niebuhr's  lectures  (3  vols.  8vo.).  Ar- 
nold's Rome  gives  Niebuhr's  views  of  the  early  history  with  great 
beauty,  and  with  the  posthumous  volume  and  early  work  (v.  Apple- 
ton's  ed.)  brings  you  down  through  the  Republic,  v.  also  Eliot's 
Liberty  of  Rome,  Schrnitz's  Roman  History,  Greene's  Historical  Se- 
ries, vol.  2,  Ferguson's  Roman  Republic,  Sismondi's  Roman  Empire. 

A.    Geography  of  Italy. 
§  84.  Names  and  Boundaries  of  Italy. 

397  The  name  of  1 1  a  1  i  a  originally  belonged  only  to  the  ex- 
c  treme  southern  portion  (called  at  a  later  period  B  r  u  1 1  i  u  m, 
and  extending  northwards  as  far  as  the  isthmus  on  the  gulf 
of  Scylla),  nor  had  the  peninsula  in  a'ncient  times  (any 
more  than  Asia  Minor)  a  general  name,  each  district  be- 
ing merely  designated  after  the  people  by  whom  it  was 
inhabited  ;  e.  g.  (Enotria  (the  south-western  peninsula 
from  the  La  us),  Ausonia,  or  Opica  (northwards  from 
the  Laiis  to  the  Tiber),  Tyrrhenia  (from  the  Tiber  to  the 
Apennines),  U  m  b  r  i  c  a  (the  north-eastern  part  of  the  penin- 
D  sula),  lapygia  (its  south-eastern  part).  It  was  not  until 
the  Romans  had  united  the  whole  peninsula  under  one 
government  (in  -260)  that  Italia  became  a  general  name 

1  In  Milman's  edition  all  the  objectionable  parts  and  doubtful  ques- 
tions are  carefully  discussed  in  the  notes. 


398,  399.  §  85.]        EUROPE. — ITALY.  201 

for  the  entire  country,  extending  northwards  to  that  branch  (397) 
of  the  Apennines  which  stretches  from  the  maritime  Alps  A 
nearly  to  the  Adriatic,  and  as  far  as  the  river  Rubicon. 
GalliaCisalpina,  which  had  been  subdued  in  the  year 
221,  was  called  in  Caesar's  time  (49)  Liguria;   but  to- 
gether with  the  territory  of  the  Garni,  Istri,  and  V  e  n  e  t  i, 
was  considered  from  the  time  of  Augustus  a  part  of  Italy ; 
the  western  boundary  of  which  towards  Gaul  was  now  the 
river  Varus  [the  Far],  and  the  eastern,  the  river  Arsia 
[Arsa]. 

We  find,  however,  even  at  a  later  period,  many  of  the  ancient  B 
names  employed  by  both  Greek  and  Latin  poets  to  designate  some- 
times the  whole  peninsula,  sometimes  particular  portions.  Italy  is 
also  called  by  them  Hesperia  (literally  the  land  of  the  West)  and 
S  a  turn  i  a  (perhaps  the  name  given  by  the  ancient  Latins  to  a  portion 
of  central  Italy.) 

§  85.    The  Mountains  of  Italy. 

A.  The  Alps,  .which  inclose  Italy  in  a  direction  from  398 
south-west  to  north-east,  are  divided  into  three  principal 
ranges,  each  of  which  consists  of  three  chains. 

1.  The  Western  Alps,  consisting  of  the  Alpes  Maritime,  (from 
the  sea  to  Viso),  the  Alpes  Cottia,  or  Alps  of  Dauphind  (as  far  as 
Mont  Gem's),  and  the  Alpes  Grata,  or  Alps  of  Savoy  (as  far  as  Mont 
Blanc). 

2.  The  Central  Alps,  subdivided  into  the  Alpes  Pennince,  or 
Valaisian  Alps  (from  Mont  Blanc  to  Monte  Rosa),  the  Alpes  Lepon- 
titB,  or  Alps  of  the  Orisons  (the  St.  Gothard),and  the  Alpes  Rh&tica, 
or  Tyrolese  Alps  (as  far  as  Grossglockner). 

3.  The  Eastern  Alps,  consisting  of  the  Alpes  Norica,  or  Alps  c 
of  Salzburg  and  Styria  (as  far  as  the  Danube  at  Vienna),  the  Alpes 
Carnicte,or  Carinthian  Alps  (as  far  as  Terglu),  and  the  Alpes  Julia, 
or  Alps  of  Carniola  (to  the  Adriatic  sea). 

B.  The  Apennlnus,  a  single  chain,  with  short  branches  399 
on  each  side,  running  from  the  maritime  Alps  through  the 
peninsula  (of  which  it  occupies  the  entire  centre   from 
north  to  south),  and  extending  into  Sicily,  interrupted  only 

by  the  strait  of  Messina. 

The  Apennines,  like  the  Alps,  are  divided  into  three  sections.  D 
1.  The  northern  Apenninus,  which  stretches  from  the  maritime  Alps 
east  and  south-east,  running  nearly  parallel  with  the  Alps,  and  sepa- 
rating the  plain  of  the  Po  from  the  sea  and  the  Arno.  2.  The 
central,  Apenninus,  beginning  at  the  sources  of  the  Arno,  forms  the 
peninsula, properly  so  called  (406), and  attains  its  greatest  height  on  the 
frontier  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  (in  the  Abruzzi  7000—9000  feet), 
and  its  greatest  breadth  (from  the  Tyrrhenian  sea  to  the  Adriatic, 


202  EUROPE. — ITALY.      [400 — 404.  §  86. 

(399)  where  it  terminates  in  the  promontory  of  Garganus).   3.  The  southern 

A  Apenninus  consists  of  two  arms,  of  which  the  eastern  is  the  higher 

and  the  western  the  lower  ;  the  two  together  forming  a  peninsula. 

The  granite  mountains  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  belong  neither  to  the 

Alpine  nor  Apennine  system. 

§  86.   The  Waters  of  Italy. 

400  Seas. — Mare  Tuscum  (Tuscan  sea),  or  Tyrrhe- 
num,or  Inferum — Mare  Hadriaticurn,or  Superum 
— Mare  internum  (Mediterranean). 

401  Gulfs. — Sinus  Ligusticus  (gulf  of  Genoa),  Sinus 
Tarentinus  (gulf  of  Taranto),  Sinus   Tergestlnus 
(gulf  of  Trieste). 

402  Lakes. — a.  In  Upper  Italy — Lacus  Verbanus  (Lago 
B  Maggiore),  L.  Larius  (Lago  di  Coino),  L.  Benacus 

(Lago  di  Garda).  b.  In  Central  Italy — L.  Trasimenus 
(Hannibal's  third  victory,  217,  now  Lago  di  Perugia),  L. 
Alb  anus  (Lago  di  Castello),  L.  Regillus  (battle  in  496, 
now  Lago  di  Regillo),  L.  Fucinus  (Lago  di  Celano). 

403  Rivers. 

a.  Running  into  the  Adriatic. — The  two  greater  Alpine 
streams,  viz.,  the  A  thesis  (the  Adige)  and  Padus  ('//£/- 
davog  ?  now  Po),  and  the  small  rivers  in  the  narrow  eastern 
strip  of  land  between  the  Apennines  and  the  sea ;  viz.,  the 
Rubicon  (now?) the  Metaurus(Metauro — Hasdrubal's 
defeat  in  207),  and  the  A  u  fid  us  (Ofanto). 

C  The  Po  rises  in  the  Vesulus  (Monte  Viso),  and  after  receiving  the 
waters  of  thirty  tributary  streams  from  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  is 
raised,  by  means  of  the  alluvial  soil  deposited  in  its  bed,  thirty  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country,  which  is  protected  by 
dams  ;  and,  finally,  forms  with  its  seven  mouths  a  swampy  Delta. 
The  most  important  tributary  streams  are — a.  Rising  in  the  Alps — 
the  Ticlnus  (now  Tessino,  Hannibal's  first  victory  in  248),  the 
Addua  (now  Adda),  and  the  Mincius  (Mincio),  which  precipitate 
themselves  together  from  the  mountains  into  one  of  the  greater  lakes 
of  Upper  Italy,  and  thence  run  with  clearer  water  into  the  Po.  6. 
Rising  in  the  Alps— the  Trebia  (Hannibal's  second  victory  in  218). 

104  b.  Running  into  the  Tyrrhenian  sea. — From  the  broader 
D  space  on  the  western  side  of  the  Apennines — 1.  The 
Arnus(Arno),  and,  2,  the  Tiberis(Tevere) ;  the  course 
of  which  is  lengthened  by  their  running  at  first  through 
valleys,  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  then  passing  into 
others  at  right  angles  with  the  former,  until  they  discharge 
themselves  by  swampy  embouchures  into  the  sea.  3.  The 


405—407.  §87.]      EUROPE.— ITALY.  203 

Liris  (Garigliano).    4.  Vulturnus  (Volturno),  Sil&rus  (404) 
(Silaro,  victory  of  Crassus,  71). 

The  tributary  streams  of  the  Tiber  are — on  the  left  the  Allia 
(victory  of  the  Gauls,  389),  and  the  Anio  (Teverone) ;  and  on  the 
right  the  Cremora  (the  300  Fabii). 

§  87.  Soil,  Climate,  and  Products  of  Italy. 

1.  The  Italian  Lowlands,  or  plain  of  the  Po,  are  405 
inclosed  on  the  north-west  by  the  Alps,  the  summits  of  A 
which  are  covered  with  eternal  snow,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
lower  and  less  precipitous  Apennines ;  but  on  the  east  they 
are  open  to  a  much- frequented  inland  sea,  and  are  watered 

by  a  navigable  river,  with  its  numerous  tributaries  and 
canals,  as  well  as  by  four  beautiful  lakes ;  and  whether  we 
consider  the  mildness  of  their  climate,  the  luxuriant  vege- 
tation (maize,  rice,  the  vine,  fruit  and  mulberry  trees,  ever 
verdant  meadows,  pastures,  &c.),  or  the  industrious  and 
productive  habits  of  the  inhabitants,  may  fairly  be  ranked 
among  the  most  highly-favored  countries  of  Europe. 

2.  The   Italian  peninsula,  lying  westward,  south- 406 
ward,  and  south-eastward  of  the  Apennines,  is  broken  up  3 
by  an  uniform  mountain-chain  into  a  number  of  small 
valleys,  watered  by  forest  streams,  and  of  plains  abutting 

on  the  coast ;  and  contains,  in  consequence,  a  series  of 
districts  separated  from  one  another  by  peculiarities  of 
situation  and  character.  The  ridge  of  this  mountain-chain 
affords  merely  pasturage ;  but  its  sides  are  covered  with 
chestnut  forests  of  immense  extent,  and  its  foot  with  vine- 
yards, plantations  of  olives,  and  orange  orchards.  Cala- 
bria and  Sicily  have  almost  an  African  climate,  which 
permits  the  cultivation  of  the  palm-tree,  the  cotton-shrub, 
and  the  sugar-cane. 

The  country  westward  of  the  Apennines  is  of  a  volcanic  nature,  of  407 
which  we  have  distinct  indications,  a.  (as  far  northward  as  Terracina, 
especially  on  the  Campagna  di  Roma)  in  the  lakes  which  occupy  C 
craters  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  in  the  sulphureous  vapors  which 
rise  out  of  holes  and  clefts  in  the  ground.  In  southern  Tuscany  and 
the  Pontine  marshes,  luxuriant  districts  are  rendered  so  pestilential 
by  this  malaria  as  to  be  uninhabitable  in  summer,  and  used  only  for 
the  pasturage  of  cattle  in  winter.  6.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the 
western  side  of  the  peninsula  the  existence  of  volcanic  matter  is  still 
more  plainly  indicated  by  the  eruptions  of  Mount  Vesuvius  (3700 
feet),  the  Phlegraan  fields,  and  Mount  ^Etna  (10,280  feet),  by  fre- 
quent earthquakes,  and  by  the  breaking  out  of  fresh  volcanoes. 


204  EUROPE.— ITALY.      [408— 415.  §  88,  89. 

§  88.  Divisions  of  Italy. 

408  A.  Upper  Italy  contains  those  districts  which  were 
A  not  reckoned  among  the  Italian  states  by  the  Romans  until 

the  time  of  Caesar  and  Augustus.  1.  Liguria;  2.  Gallia 
Ci  sal  pin  a,  or  Togata  ;  3.  the  country  of  the  Veneti, 
with  that  of  the  Garni  and  Istri. 

409  B.  Central  Italy  contains — 

a.  On   the  western  side,  Etruria,  Latium,  and 
Campania. 

b.  On  the  eastern  side,  Umbria,  Picenum,  and 

Samnium. 

410  C.  Lower   Italy— 

a.  On  the  western  side,  Lucania  and  Bruttium. 

b.  On  the  eastern  side,  Apulia  and  Calabria. 

411  D.  The  Islands— 

Sicilia  [Sicily],  Sardinia,  Corsica,  the  smaller 
islands. 

§  89.   The  ancient  Inhabitants  of  Italy. 
A.    The   most    ancient   races. 

412  1.  The  Pelasgi  inhabited  not  only  the  entire  western 
B  coast  from  the  Arnus  to  the  southernmost  point  of  Italy 

(where  the  northern  portion  of  them  were  called  Tyrrheni, 
and  the  southern  (Enolrii),  but  also  parts  of  the  eastern 
coast;  the  Veneti  in  the  north,  and  the  Daunii  and  Peucetii 
in  the  south,  belonging  probably  to  the  Pelasgian  race. 

413  2.  The    Opici,  Osci,  and  Ausones,  inhabited   the 
western  branch  of  the  Apennine  chain.     To  this  race  be- 
longed the  JEqui   and   Volsci,  in  Latium  the   Casci  (or 
Prisci),  who  dwelt  at  first  round  the  lake  Fucinus,  and  at 
a  later  period  were  driven  out  by  the  Sabines,  and  mi- 
grated to  Latium,  and  probably  the  Apuli  (westward  of 
the  Garganus),  who  subdued  the  Pelasgian  Daunii. 

414  3.  The  Sabelli,  an  offset  of  the  ancient  Sabini.     The 
c  original  seat  of  the  Sabines  was  among  the  highest  moun- 
tains of  the  Abruzzi  about  Amiternum,  whence  the  super- 
fluous   population    migrated   in    various    directions — the 
Picentes  to  Picenum,  the  Hernici  to  Latium,  the  Samnltes 
to  Campania,  and  the  Lucani  to  Lucania.     In  the  ancient 
seats  there  remained  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  Vessini,  and  Ma. 
rucini,  who  composed  a  confederacy. 

415  4.  The   Umbri,  an   aboriginal  people   of  Italy,  who, 


416 — 418.  §89.]      EUROPE. — ITALY.  205 

before  the  immigration  of  the  Etrusci,  had  spread  from  the 
Pad  us  into  the  country  of  the  Sabines,  and  probably  also 
into  southern  Etruria. 

5.  The  Ligures,  whose  origin  is  unknown.     At  an  416 
early  period  they  had  considerably  transgressed  the  boun-  A 
dary  assigned  to  Liguria  by  Augustus  (perhaps  from  the 
Pyrenees  to  the  Tiber,  and  in  the  north  as  far  as  the  Seve- 
nine  and  across  the  Po),  but  were  afterwards  driven  back 
by  the  I  be  res  on  one  side,  and  the  Gel  tee  on  the  other. 

B.    Foreign   Settlers. 

1.  The  Etrusci,  or  Tuscans  (Raseni  in  their  own  Ian-  417 
guage),  came  from  Rhsetia,  being  probably  driven  out  by  the 
Celtae,  and  entering  Upper  Italy,  drove  back  the  Venetians 
and  Umbrians,  and  founded  in  Gallia  Cisalpma  (of  which  the 
Ligurians  retained  the  western  part)  a  confederate  state  of 
twelve  sovereign  cities.  At  a  later  period  they  crossed 
the  Apennines  and  the  Arnus,  and  founded  in  Tuscany  a 
second  confederate  state  of  twelve  cities ;  having  first  sub- 
dued or  expelled  the  Umbrians  and  Tyrrhenians,  who  dwelt 
between  the  Arno  and  the  Tiber.  At  length  (about  the  B 
year  470)  the}'  forced  their  way  into  Campania,  where 
they  founded  colonies  (probably  a  third  confederate  state 
of  twelve  cities),  such  as  Capua  and  Nola;  of  which, 
however,  they  were  soon  deprived  by  the  Samnites. 

Religion,  fyc.  of  the  Etrusci. 

a.  Religion.  Their  gods  (in  Tuscan  ^Esar)  were  divided  by  the  410 
Etrusci  into  two  classes.  1.  The  higher  or  veiled  divinities,  dark, 
mysterious  powers,  working  in  secret,  whose  number  was  unknown  ; 
and,  2,  the  twelve  inferior  gods.  Jupiter  (in  Tuscan  Tina,  or  Tinia), 
occupying  probably  a  middle  position  between  the  two  classes,  and 
believed  to  be  the  centre  of  the  divine  world.  He  consults  the 
higher  divinities  on  matters  of  importance,  whilst  those  of  the  lower 
•  class  compose  his  ordinary  council.  Different  parts  of  the  creation, 
e.  g.  the  heavens,  water,  the  infernal  regions,  &c.,  were  also  sup- 
posed to  be  under  the  protection  of  Daemons  (Lares,  Penates,  and 
Manes).  A  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Etruscan  religion 
was  the  prominent  position  occupied  by  divination,  or  the  discovery 
of  the  divine  will  by  means  of  auguries.  This  art,  or  "  discipline," 
which,  according  to  the  legend,  was  revealed  by  Tages,  the  grandson 
of  Jupiter,  and  at  first  propagated  by  tradition  in  the  families  of  the 
nobles,  was  subsequently  imparted  to  all  classes  in  schools  set  apart 
for  that  purpose,  and  rules  for  its  acquisition,  accurately  laid  down 
in  books  (Etruscae  Disciplinae  Volumina).  This  "discipline"  as- 
sumed that  the  gods  were  wont  to  declare  their  will  to  mankind  by  D 
lightning,  the  flight  and  cry  of  birds,  the  entrails  of  victims,  and 


206  EUROPE. ITALY.         [419 421.    §89. 

other  signs,  which  it  was  the  business  of  the  Harusplces  to  in- 
terpret. 

419  6.  The  Constitution.  The  whole  of  Etruria  formed  a  confederacy 
.  of  twelve  independent  cities  ;  but  which  of  these  were  members  of  the 

league  cannot  be  satisfactorily  ascertained,  as  there  seems  to  have 
been  more  than  twelve,  equally  independent.  Probably  some  of  the 
twelve  nations  (nonets)  of  Etruria  were  not  restricted  to  one  capital, 
but  inhabited  several  cities,  independent  of  each  other,  but  having 
only  one  vote  in  the  confederacy.  The  members  of  the  league  had 
regularly  every  year  religious  meetings  in  the  temple  of  Voltumna 
(the  situation  of  which  cannot  be  distinctly  ascertained).  On  these 
occasions  public  fairs  were  held,  expeditions  agreed  on  by  the 
"  principes  "  of  the  confederacy,  and  commanders  of  the  allied  forces 
elected.  Each  of  the  allied  states  had,  at  least  in  the  earliest  times, 
a  king  elected  for  life,  and  a  hereditary  nobility,  named  by  the  Romans 
"  principes"  ( =  Lucumones?),  who  alone  could  aspire  to  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state.  There  was  also  a  commonalty  personally  inde- 
pendent of  the  nobles,  and  a  crowd  of  clients,  who  were  probably 
descendants  of  the  vanquished  aborigines  (Tyrrheni  and  Umbri). 

420  c'  Arts  and  Sciences.     All  the  religious  celebrations  of  the 
Etruscans,  particularly  their  solemn  processions,  were  accompanied 
with  music  (flutes,  trumpets,  horns,  &c.).     Scenic  art  was  confined  to 
the  dance,  in  which  the  performers,  without  employing  words,  repre- 
sented the  plot  by  means  of  gestures.     Their  architectural  works, 
city-walls,  of  the  Pelasgian  order,  indicating  the  transition  from  the 
Cyclopian  style  to  that  in  which  hewn  stones  are  employed,  vaulted 
gateways,  monuments,  temples,  theatres,  and  amphitheatres,  are  of 
colossal  dimensions,  and  were  probably  raised  by  feudal  labor;  as 
were  also  their  aqueducts,  sewers,  dams,  and  canals,  by  means  of 
which  the  Delta  of  the  Po  was  regulated,  and  the  marshes  drained 

.  c  on  the  banks  of  the  Arnus.  From  their  famous  manufacture  of 
vases,  relievos,  and  statues,  in  terra  cotta,  they  gradually  learnt  the 
art  of  casting  in  bronze  such  articles  as  ornamental  arms,  candelabra, 
paterae,  &c.  ;  in  the  production  of  which  they  attained  a  high  degree 
of  excellence.  Painting  was  employed  partly  for  the  coloring  of 
statues  and  relievos  in  stone  and  clay,  and  partly,  as  an  independent 
art,  for  frescoes  on  the  walls  of  tombs.  In  the  absence  of  any  le- 
gends of  native  heroism,  the  Etruscan  artists  borrowed  for  the  most 
part  their  subjects  from  the  Greek  mythology,  which  they  were  wont 
to  combine,  in  a  modified  form,  with  their  local  traditions.  In 
Etruscan  literature,  we  find,  besides  their  books  of  "  discipline,"  a 
few  religious  hymns,  the  Fescennine  verses  (ribaldrous  songs,  in 
alternate  verse),  and  historical  notices.  From  them  the  Romans 
borrowed  most  of  their  knowledge  respecting  the  interpretation  of 
signs,  the  designation  of  numbers  by  figures,  and  the  division  of  the 
month  into  calends,  nones,  and  ides,  as  well  as  the  dress  and  in- 
signia of  their  magistrates 

421  d    Commerce.     The  Tuscans  seem  at  an  early  period  (perhaps 
D  even  in  Homer's  time)  to  have  carried  on  a  considerable  land-traffic 

in  their  N-ttlemonta  on  the  Po  ;  and  also  to  have  brought  overland 
from  the  coasts  of  the  Daltic  the  amber  which  they  obtained  from 
Germanic  tribes,  and  subsequently  transported  by  sea  into  Greece. 
Their  maritime  traffic  began  with  piracy  in  the  western  Mediterrm- 


422—420.  §90.]      EUROPE.— ITALY.  207 

nean,  accompanied  by  the  establishment,  through  commercial  leagues,  (421) 
of  friendly  relations  with  particular  nations,  especially  with  the  A 
Carthaginians  and  Greeks  of  Lower  Italy.  The  articles  of  export 
were  partly  the  natural  and  artistic  productions  of  those  districts  of 
Italy  which  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Etruscans  (grain,  iron  from 
Ilva,  wine,  earthenware,  works  in  bronze,  &c.)>  partly  those  which 
they  had  obtained  by  traffic  with  foreigners  ;  amber,  for  instance. 
Their  imports  were  the  products  of  the  east.  A  third  branch  was 
their  domestic  trade,  which  was  closely  connected  with  the  religious 
festivals,  each  of  them  being  at  the  same  time  a  fair ;  the  business  of 
which  must  have  been  considerable,  since  the  Etruscan  monetary 
system  was  adopted  by  the  whole  of  central  Italy. 

2.  For  the  Grecian  settlements,  see  §  62.  422 

3.  The  Gauls,   a  rude  offset  of  the  great  tribe  of  the 
Celtae,  which  had  spread  itself  over  western  Europe,  mi- 
grated (about  B.  c.  400)  in  great  numbers  (300,000)  into 
Italy  ;    a  portion  of  them  overrunning  Upper  Italy  and 
marching  upon  Rome  ;  whilst  the  remainder  directed  their 
course  towards  Pannonia. 

§  90.   Topography  of  Italy. 
A.     Upper  Italy. 

1.  Liguria,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  comprehended  423 
the  line  of  coast  between  the  rivers  Varus  and  Macra,  B 
northwards  as  far  as  the  Pad  us.      Genua  (Genova),  chief 
commercial  city  of  the  Ligurians. 

2.  Gallia  Cisalpina,  or  Togata.  424 
This  vast  plain,  which  was  occupied  by  the  Gauls,  is 

divided  by  the  Po  into  two  parts. 

A.  Gallia  Cispadana  (inhabited  by  the  Boii,  Sendnes,  425 
and  Lingdnes).   Cities. — 1.  Placentia  (Piacenza),  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Trebia  with  the  Padus ;  founded  by  the 
Romans  in  219.      2.    Mutina  (Modena ;  defeat  of  M. 
Anthony  in  43).    3.  Bononia  (Bologna).    4.  Ravenna, 
formerly  on  the  sea-coast,  now  an  inland  town  ;    imperial 
residence  from  the  time  of  Honorius. 

B.  Gallia  Transpadana  (inhabited  by  the  Taurini,  Insu-  426 
bres,  and  Cenomani).     Cities. — 1.   Augusta  Taurino- c 
rum  (Taurino,  Turin),  on  the  Padus  (originally  the  capital 

of  the  Taurini,  under  the  name  of  Taurasia).  2.  Ver- 
c  e  1 1  ae  ( Vercelli),  defeat  of  the  Cimbrii  in  the  Campi  Raudii 
(101).  3.  TicInum(Pavia),  on  the  Ticinus.  4.  Medio- 
1  a  n  u  m  (Milano,  Milan),  under  the  emperors  the  seat  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  (hence  Novae  Athense),  and  frequently  the 
imperial  residence.  5.  Cremona  on  the  Padus,  founded 
10* 


208  EUROPE.— ITALY.        [427 429.    §90. 

by  the  Romans  in219.  6.  Mantua,  in  a  lake  formed  by 
the  river  Mincius ;  near  it  was  the  village  of  Andes,  in 
which  Virgil  was  born. 

427  3.  The  country  of  the  Veneti. 

A  Cities. — 1.  V  e  r  5  n  a,  on  both  sides  of  the  Athesis ;  am- 
phitheatre for  22,000  spectators.  2.  Patavium  (Padova, 
Padua),  founded,  according  to  the  legend,  by  Trojan  exiles, 
under  the  command  of  Antenor.  Birth-place  of  Livy 
(hence  his  "  Patavinitas,"  or  provincialism). 

From  the  time  of  Augustus  the  following  districts  were 
also  included  in  the  country  of  the  Veneti: — 1.  The 
country  of  the  Garni,  with  the  city  of  Aquileia,  demo- 
lished  by  Attila  (A.  D.  452).  2.  I  stria,  with  the  city  of 
Tergeste  (Trieste). 

B.  Central  Italy. 

428  1.  Etruria,  or  Tyrrhenia;  at  a  later  period  also 
sTuscia. 

Boundaries. — On  the  north,  the  M  a  c  r  a  ;  east  and  south, 
the  Tiber  ;  west,  the  sea.  Aboriginal  inhabitants — Tyr- 
rhenian Pelasgians  ;  settlers — the  Etrusci  from  Rhsetia. 
The  most  remarkable  of  its  twelve  sovereign  cities,  which 
were  for  the  most  part  situated  on  eminences,  were — 

1.  Caere,  where  Mezentius  ruled,  and  where  the  Romans 
concealed   their   sacred  images  during    the  Gallic  war. 

2.  Veii,  the  largest  and  most  powerful  city  of  Etruria 
(100,000  inhabitants),  which  carried  on  seven  wars  against 
Rome,  and  after  its  capture  by  Camillus  (395)  remained 

c  uninhabited.  3.  Tarquinii.  4.  Clusium  (Chiusi),  Por- 
senna.  5.  P  e  r  u  s  i  a  (Perugia),  defeat  of  the  Etrusci  (309) ; 
it  was  destroyed  in  the  Perusian  civil  war  (40).  6.  Arre- 
tium  (Arezzo),  the  birth-place  of  Maecenas. 

Non-sovereign  places — 1.  Luca  (Lucca).  2.  Pisee  (Pisa),  on 
the  Arnus,  with  the  Portus  Pisanus  (where  now  stands  Livorao,  or 
Leghorn).  3.  Florentia  (Firenze,  Florence),  on  the  Arnus. 

429  2.    Latium,  was  divided  into  Latium  vetus,  from  the 
Tiber  to  the  promontory  of  Circe  ii,  and  Latium  adjectum, 
or  novum,  to  the  Liris.     Latium  vetus  was  originally  in- 
habited by  the  Siculi  (Tyrrhenian  Pelasgians),  of  whom  a 
considerable  number  fled  into  Sicily,  when  the  Casci,  re- 
tiring before  the  Sabines,  took  possession  of  their  country  ; 
whilst  the  remainder,  submitting  to  the  invaders,  formed 


430,  431.  §  90.]        EUROPE. — ITALY.  209 

in  conjunction  with  them  the  nation  of  the  Latini.  In  (429) 
contradistinction  to  the  nation  thus  established  by  conquest,  A 
the  Siculi,  as  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Latium,  were  alsfr 
styled  aborigines.  By  degrees  there  arose  thirty  small 
independent  states,  forming  a  confederacy,  which  annually 
celebrated  the  ferise  Latinae  on  the  Alban  mount,  and  held 
a  diet,  in  a  grove  near  the  fountain  of  Ferentlna,  for  the 
discussion  of  questions  affecting  the  general  interests  of 
the  league.  Southward  and  eastward  of  Latium  vetus 
dwelt  the  jEqui,  Hernici,  Volsci,  and  Ausdnes ;  whose 
territories,  after  the  last  Latin  war  (337),  were  added  to 
Latium,  under  the  title  of  Latium  novum. 

Cities  of  the  Latini. — 1.    Roma,  which  originally  stood  430 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  on  seven  hills,  Palatinus,  B 
Capitolinus,  Quirinalis,  Viminalis,  Esquilinus, 
Coelius,  and  Aventinus,  to  which  was  added  in  the 
time  of  Aurelian,  the  collis  Hortulorum  (Monte  Pincio), 
the  Janiculum  and  Vaticanus  (on  the  other  side  of 
the  Tiber),  and  at  a  later  period  the  Mons  testaceus. 

The  ancient  city  of  Romulus  was  confined  to  the  Palatine.  On  the  431 
opposite  hill  (the  Quirinalis),  was  a  Sabine  colony,  the  citizens  of 
which  were  named  Quirites.  After  the  Sabine  war  these  two  dis- 
tricts united,  forming  a  single  city  protected  by  a  fortress  on  the 
Capitoline,  which  they  occupied  as  a  common  citadel.  An  addition 
was  made  to  the  city  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  who  settled  the  Albans  on 
the  Caelian  hill,  after  the  demolition  of  their  own  city,  and  by  Ancus 
Martius,  who  established  the  vanquished  Latins  on  the  Aventine. 
Tarquinius  Priscus  drained  the  swampy  flats  (particularly  the 
Velabrum  between  the  Palatine  and  Aventine),  by  means  of  cloacaB. 
Servius  Tullius  surrounded  the  seven  hills  with  a  wall,  which  ex- 
tended on  the  other  side  the  Tiber  to  the  summit  of  the  Janiculum.  c 
On  the  eastern  side  aldne,  from  the  porta  Collina  to  the  Esquilina,  the 
city  was  protected  merely  by  a  mound  of  earth  (agger),  with  fosses. 
Servius  divided  the  city  into  four  regions.  (Suburana,  Esquilina, 
Collina,  and  Palatina).  When  Rome  was  burnt  by  the  Gauls,  the 
whole  city  was  destroyed  as  far  as  the  Capitoline  hill,  and  sub- 
sequently rebuilt  without  any  regular  plan.  From  the  time  of  the 
Punic  war,  and  still  more  from  the  reign  of  Augustus  (who  divided 
the  city  into  fourteen  regions),  there  were  considerable  additions  and 
embellishments.  After  the  conflagration  in  Nero's  reign,  the  three 
districts  which  had  been  laid  in  ashes  were  rebuilt  and  presented  a 
uniform  appearance.  Aurelian  entirely  surrounded  the  city  with  a 
new  wall  (with  towers,  battlements,  and  breastworks),  and  under 
Diocletian  Rome  had  attained  her  highest  pitch  of  beauty  and 
splendor :  but  with  the  transfer  of  the  imperial  residence  to  Byzan- 
tium, the  prosperity  of  the  ancient  capital  began  rapidly  to  decline, 

1  In  this  sketch,  Niebuhr's  views  are  followed.     Nardini,  Nibby, 
and  Canino  differ  from  him  on  many  points. 


210  EUROPE. — ITALY.        [432,  433.  §  90. 

and    several  quarters  were    gradually  deserted,  especially  after   the 
sack  and  pillage  of  the  city  by  the  Goths  (41U),  and  Vandals  (455) 
432*    The  mons  Cujritolinus,  originally  Saturnius,  consisted  of  two  por- 

A  lions  separated  by  the  "  intermontium."  The  southernmost  of  these 
rocky  peaks  was  the  rupes  Tarpeia  (approached  by  the  centum 
gradus),  the  northern,  which  was  fortified,  was  named  arx.  On  the 
southwestern  side  (according  to  Niebuhr),  stood  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus,  built  by  Tnrquinius  Superbus,  which  was  thrice  burnt 
(B.  c.  84,  A.  D  69  and  80).  .  Between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  was 
the  forum  Komanum,  anciently  the  velabrum  (now  campo  vaccino), 
divided  by  the  rostra,  (so  named  from  the  beaks  of  the  Antian  ships, 
anciently  "  templum,"  or  stage  from  which  orators  addressed  the 
people,)  into  the  comitium  (place  of  meeting  for  the  patricians),  and 

B  the  forum  properly  so  called  (where  the  plebeians  assembled).  Near 
the  comitium  stood  the  curia  Hostilia,  originally  the  citadel  of  king 
Tullus  Hostilius,  which  was  granted  by  that  monarch  to  the  senate 
fortheir  sittings.  The  building  was  destroyed  by  a  fire,  which  broke 
out  during  the  burning  of  the  dead  body  of  Clodius,  and  was  subse- 
quently restored  by  Caesar,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  curia  Julia. 
Between  the  Palatine  and  Aventine  was  the  Cirrus  Maximus  (which 
held,  at  the  lowest  estimate,  150,000  persons  ;  according  to  A.  Victor, 
385,000).  The  handsomest  streets  were  the  Via  Sacra  (leading  from 

C  the  Colosseum  to  the  forum),  and  the  Carina,  between  the  Esquiline 
and  Cselian.  The  most  considerable  place  of  public  resort  was  the 
Campus  Martius,  which  was  used  for  gymnastic  exercises,  reviews  of 
the  army,  and  the  comitia  centuriata.  At  a  later  period  it  was  sur- 
rounded by  public  buildings. 

433  The  most  important  buildings  were,  among  the  temples  (of  which 
there  were  more  than  400),  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  the 
Pantheon  of  Agrippa  (now  Santa  Maria  della  Rotonda)  ;  among  the 
palaces,  the  golden  house  of  Nero,  which  not  only  covered  the  whole 
of  the  Palatine,  but  even  extended  as  far  as  the  Esquiline,  and  com- 
prehended within  its  walls  temples,  baths,  groves,  race-courses,  &c. 
Among  the  theatres,  the  three  built  by  Pompey  (for  40,000  spectators), 
that  of  Marcellus  (with  30,000  seats)  ;  among  the  amphitheatres  the 
Amphitheatrum  Flavium,  (afterwards  the  Colosseum  [Coliseo],  begun 
by  Vespasian,  and  completed  by  Titus.  It  contained  100,000  persons. 
Among  the  baths,  or  Therma,  those  of  Titus  (in  which,  the  group  of 
the  Laocoon  was  discovered),  of  Caracalla  and  Diocletian  ;  among  the 
columns,  the  columna  rostrata  Duilii,  in  the  forum  Romanum,  and 

D  the  pillar  of  Trajan  in  the  Forum  Ulpium.  Among  the  monuments, 
the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  the  moles  Hadriani  (now  the  castle  of 
St.  Angelo),  and  the  Septizonium  of  Septimius  Severus;  and  among 
the  triumphal  arches,  those  of  Titus,  Septimius  Severus,  and  Con- 
stantine.  Besides  these  buildings  there  were  several  porticos  (ten), 
basilicae  (thirty-seven),  gates  (eighteen),  fora  (ten),  circuses,  nau- 
machijjc,  obelisks,  statues  (the  bronze  colossal  statue  of  Nero,  and 
that  of  M.  Aurelius,  which  has  been  preserved),  odea  (twenty), 
aqueducts,  cloacae,  &c.,  &c. 

The  environs  of  the  city  (especially  on  the  sixteen  scientifically 
constructed  roads  leading  to  all  parts  of  Italy),  were  crowded  with 


434 — 436.  §  90.]      EUROPE. — ITALY.  211 

innumerable  villas,  sepulchral  monuments,  and  ornamental  buildings 
of  every  description.  Underneath  the  city  and  the  via  Appia 
were  catacombs.  On  the  Alban  mount  was  a  temple  to  Latial  Jove, 
where  consuls  went  to  offer  sacrifice  before  setting  out  for  the  army. 

2.  Ostia  ;  founded  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber  by  Ancus  434 
Martius,  as  the  port  of  Rome.     3.  Laurentum,  also  on 

the  coast,  where  Latinus  was  king  when  ^Eneas  landed  in 
Italy.  4.  Lavinium,  built,  according  to  the  legend, 
by  jEneas,  and — 5.  Alba  Long  a,  on  the  slope  of 
the  Alban  hill  (where  the  ferise  Latinse  were  held),  and 
on  the  border  of  the  Alban  lake,  (the  mother  city  of 
Rome,  if  we  may  believe  tradition).*  It  was  destroyed 
by  Tullus  Hostilius.  6.  Tusculum  (near  the  modern 
Frascati),  surrounded  by  numerous  villas  (Cicero's  Tus- 
culanum).  7.  Praeneste  (now  Palestrina),  built  on  the  B 
slope  of  a  hill  in  the  form  of  terraces,  and  strongly  forti- 
fied. It  was  demolished  in  the  civil  wars  of  Sulla  (82). 
8.  Gabii,  said  to  have  been  taken  by  stratagem,  by 
S.  Tarquinius.  9.  Tibur  (now  Tivoli),  on  the  Anio,  a 
favorite  residence  of  the  Roman  nobles,  and  consequently 
surrounded  by  villas  (those  of  Maecenas  and  others).  10. 
Collatia,  the  residence  of  Tarquinius  Collatinus,  the  hus- 
band of  Lucretia. 

Other  nations  in  Latium.  1.  The  Rutuli,  with  the  city  435 
of  Ardea,  which  was  besieged  by  Tarquinius  Superbus. 
2.  The  Hernlci  (with  the  city  Anagnia).  3.  The  Volsci 
and  jEqui,  with  the  cities  of  Antium  (taken  and  deprived 
of  its  fleet  in  338).  Terraclna  (or  Anxur),  Suessa 
Pometia  (stormed  by  Tarquin  the  Proud),  Fregellae, 
A  r  p I  n  u  m,  the  birth-place  of  Marius  and  Cicero,  C  o  r  i  6 1  i 
(see  §  106).  4.  Some  of  the  Ausones,  or  Aurunci,  with 
the  city  of  Mint  urn  ae  on  the  Liris  (Marius). 

3.  Campania  (from  the  Liris  to  Silarus).  436 
Inhabitants :  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgians,  then  Opicii  (Auso-  c 

nians),  Greek  settlements  on  the  coast,  and  immigrations  of 
the  Etruscans,  whose  dominion  was  speedily  crushed  by  an 
invasion  of  the  Samnites.  From  the  amalgamation  of 
the  Samnite  invaders  with  the  earlier  inhabitants  of 
the  country,  the  Opici,  Greeks,  and  Etruscans,  sprang 
the  Campanians.  Mountains  :  the  Gaurus  on  the  Gulf  D 
of  Puteoli  (first  defeat  of  the  Samnites,  342),  Vesuvius 
(defeat  of  the  Latins,  339),  Falernian  and  Massic  wines. 
Cities. — a.  On  the  coast.  1.  Cumse,  the  most  ancient 


212  EUROPE.— ITALY.      [437—439.  §90. 

(436)  Greek  colony  in  Italy,  founded  by  emigrants  from  Chalcis 

A  in  EuboBa  (B.  c.  1030  ?),  with  its  port  Dicsearchia  (the 

modern  Puteoli).     In  the  vicinity  was  the  lake  Avernus 

(*AOQVO?),  near  which  was  a  cavern,  believed  to  be  the 

entrance  to  the  infernal  regions.    2.  M  i  s  e  n  u  m,  a  sea-port. 

3.  Baise,  a  bathing-place ;  near  it  was  the  lacus  Lucrlnus, 
out  of  which  arose,  in  the  year  1538,  the  monte  nuovo. 

4.  Neapolis(Napoli,  Naples),  near  it  was  Parthenope, 
or  Palaiopolis,  a  colony  of  Cumse.  5.  Herculaneum(over 
which  now  stand  the  cities  of  Portici  and  Resina) ,  P  o  m  p  e  i  i, 
and  Stabiae,  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  (by  an  eruption  of 
which  they  were  destroyed,  A.  D.  79).     The  two  first  were 
again  brought  to  light  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  afforded 

B  a  rich  harvest  to  the  antiquarian,  b.  Cities  in  the  interior. 
I.Capua;  at  first  a  Tyrrhenian  settlement  under  the  name 
of  Vulturnum,  then  Etruscan,  afterwards  Samnite,  and 
lastly,  a  Roman  municipium,  and  the  second  city  of  Italy, 
until  it  espoused  the  cause  of  Hannibal,  when  it  was  a 
second  time  captured,  and  suffered  the  vengeance  of  the 
conqueror  ;  it  continued,  however,  to  be  an  important  city 
until  the  middle  ages.  2.  N  o  1  a  (second  defeat  of  Han- 
nibal) ;  Augustus  died  there  A.  D.  14. 

C  The  Picentini  were  transplanted  by  the  Romans  from  Picenum 
into  southern  Campania,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  the  Samnitea 
from  the  lower  sea.  Principal  sea-port,  Sale  mum. 

437  4.  Umbria  (from  the  Rubicon  to  the  JEsis  and  Nar). 
Cities. — a.  On  the  coast.     1.  A  rim  in  urn  (Rimini).  2. 

Sena  (Sinigaglia,  Hannibal  defeated  in  207).     b.  In  the 
interior,  Sentlnum  (defeat  of  the  Samnites,  295). 

438  5.  Picenuin. 

Inhabitants — originally  Pelasgians,  afterwards  Picen- 
tians,  a  Sabine  people.  Cities. — 1.  Ancona^/xw*').  2. 
Asculum  Picenum  (Ascoli),  sacked  in  the  war  of  the 
confederates. 

439  6.  Samnium. 

D  Inhabitants — the  Sabines,  and  their  offspring  the  Sabelli. 
A.  The  Sabines  with  the  cities,  1.  Cures(-ium),  capital  of 
the  Sabines  (where  T.  Tatius  reigned,  and  Nurna  Pom- 
pilius  was  born).  2.  Fidense.  3.  Crustumerium,in  the 
territory  of  which  stood  the  mons  sacer.  4.  Amiternum 
(birth-place  of  Sallust).  B.  The  Sabelli :  a.  the  Samnites 


440,  441.    §90.]  EUROPE.—  ITALY.  213 


,  whose  dominions,  previously  to  their  wars  with  (439) 
the    Romans,  extended    from    the  Hadriatic  sea   to  the  A 
Tyrrhenian,  with  the  cities  —  1  .  Beneventum  (Benevento), 
originally  Maleventum  (defeat  of  Pyrrhus  in  275).     2. 
Bovianum  (battle  in  305).    Caudium,  with  the  pass  called 
the  furculse  Caudlnee  (victory  of  Pontius,  the    Samnite 
general   in   321).     b.    The   confederacy  of  the   Marsi, 
Peligni  with  the  cities,  Corfinium,  capital  of  the  Italian 
confederacy,  and  Sulmo,  the  birth-place  of  Ovid),  Mar- 
rucini  and  Vestini.     c.  The  Hirpini  and  Frentani. 


C.  Lower  Italy,  or  Magna  Groecia. 

1.  Lucania  and  Bruttium  (separated  by  the  river  440 
Laus). 

Inhabitants. — The  (Enotrii,  who  were  Grecized  by  B 
Grecian  settlements  on  the  coast,  were  subdued  by  the 
Lucanians  (Sabelli),  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfs. 
At  a  latej?-  period,  however,  they  rose  against  their  op- 
pressors, and,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Osci,  wrested  from 
them  the  southern  half  of  the  district,  hence  their  name 
Bruttii,  i.  e.  revolted  serfs.  To  these  we  may  add  the 
Greek  settlements  on  the  coast,  viz.,  Cities  in  Lucania — 

1.  Sybaris  (5 10,  destroyed  by  the  Crotoniates — its  lux- 
ury).    [Posidonia,  or  Psestum  (of  which  magnificent  ruins  c 
still   remain),  was  founded   by  settlers  from  this  city.] 

2.  Thuri\,  founded  by  the  Athenians  (446),  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  demolished  Sybaris.     3.  Helia  (also  Velia  and 
Elea),  seat  of  the  Eleatic  school  of  philosophy.    4.  Hera- 
el  e  a  (victory  of  Pyrrhus,  280).     Cities  in  Bruttium — (now 
Calabria),  Croton,  near  the  promontory  of  Lacinium  (its 
inhabitants  destroy  Sybaris;    school  of  Pythagoras,  the 
Athletes,    Milo).     2.    Rhegium   (Reggio).     3.    Locri 
Epizephyrii  (the  law-giver  Zaleucus).    4.  Consentia, 
capital  of  the  Bruttii.     Alaric  died  here,  and  was  buried 
in  the  bed  of  the  Busentinus. 

2.  Apulia    and   Calabria,    named   by  the    Greeks  441 
lapygia.  D 

Inhabitants. — Messapians,  Peucetians,  and  Daunians  ; 
hence,  Apulia  was  divided  by  the  Aufidus  into  Apulia 
Peucetia  and  Ap.  Daunia.  The  Byzantines,  after  losing 


214  EUROPE. — ITALY.        [442,  443.  §  90. 

(441)  the  south-eastern  peninsula,  transferred  the  name  of  Cala- 
A  bria  to  the  south-western.  Cities  in  Apulia. — 1 .  L  u  c  e  r  i  a 
(§  114).  2.  Asculum  Apulum  (victory  of  Pyrrhus  in 
279).  3.  Cannae  (fourth  victory  of  Hannibal  in  216). 
4.  venusia(a  Roman  colony  established  after  the  Samnite 
wars;  birth-place  of  Horace).  Cities  in  Calabria. — 1. 
Brundusium  (Brindisi),  usual  port  of  embarkation  for 
Greece  (to  Dyrrhachium).  2.  Tarentum  (7't>'p«s;  now 
Tarento),  founded  by  the  Parthenii  from  Sparta ;  the  most 
flourishing  commercial  and  manufacturing  Grecian  city 
in  Italy  (with  300,000  inhabitants),  Archytas;  ten  years' 
war  with  the  Romans. 


D.  The  Islands. 


442  1.  Sic  ilia  (SixtUa,  .Ttxan'a, 

B  This  island,  the  granary  of  Italy,  studded  in  ancient 
times  with  magnificent  cities,  and  possessing  an  unusually 
numerous  population,  was  separated  from  the  Italian  penin- 
sula by  the  Sicilian  strait  (now  str.  of  Messina),  in  which 
the  currents  of  the  Hadriatic  and  Tyrrhenian  seas  met,  and 
formed  the  whirlpools  known  by  the  names  of  Scylla  and 
Charybdis.  A  continuation  of  the  Apennines,  which  ex- 
tends along  the  northern  coast,  and  sends  out  a  branch 
towards  the  south-east,  gives  the  island  its  form,  which  is 
triangular,  terminating  in  three  promontories  (Pelorum, 

c  Pachynum,  and  Lilybeeum).  The  most  fertile  part  of  the 
island  is  the  volcanic  formation  on  the  eastern  coast,  where 
Mount  jEtna  (Mongibello),  rises  to  the  height  of  10,000 
feet. 

443  Inhabitants.  —  The  Sicani  (probably  immigrants  from 
Iberia),  were  driven  back  in  the  south  and  west  part  of 
the  island,  by  the  Siculi,  who  came  from  Latium  ;  Phoeni- 
cian  and  Greek  settlements,  the  former  on  the  north-western 
coast  (they  afterwards  joined  the  Carthaginians),  the  latter 

D  on  the  southern  and  western  coasts.  Cities.  —  a.  In  the 
cast,  1.  Mess  an  a  (anciently  Zancle,  now  Messina),  where 
the  Messenians,  and,  at  a  later  period,  the  Mamertines, 
formed  settlements.  2.  Taurornenium  (with  a  theatre, 
which  still  "remains,  capable  of  holding  from  30,000  to 
40,000  spectators).  3.  Cat  an  a  (Catania),  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  ./Etna.  4.  Syracusae  (Siragossa),  a  fourfold  city 


444 — 446.  §  90.]      EUROPE. — ITALY.  215 

(Ortygia,  Archradina,  Tycha,  Neapolis),  a  Corinthian  (443) 
colony  founded  in  735.  At  the  period  of  its  greatest  pros-  A 
pcrity  it  contained  probahly  a  million  of  inhabitants,  b. 
In  the  south — 1.  Gel  a  (a  Rhodian  colony),  and  its  daughter 
cities.  2.  Agrigentum  (Girgenti,  with  its  magnificent  re- 
mains of  Greek  temples,  one  of  which,  the  temple  of  Zeus 
Olympios,  is  described  by  Diodorus  as  the  largest  in  the 
world).  3.  Selinus.  c.  In  the  west  and  north — 1.  Lily- 
bseum  (the  Phoenician  Motye).  2.  D  re  pan  a.  3.  Se- 
geste, orEgesta.  4.  Panormus  (Palermo).  5.  Himera 
(Gelon's  victory  in  480).  d.  In  the  interior — Henna 
(Enna).  (Rape  of  Proserpine  ;  outbreak  of  the  first  ser- 
vile war.) 

2.  Sardinia  (2aQ$w  and  Zagduv). 

The  two  neighboring  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  444 
are  essentially  distinguished  from  the  mainland  of  Italy  by  B 
the  granite  formation  of  their  mountains,  as  well  as  by  the 
rugged  character  of  their  inhabitants.      The  Sardinians 
lived  in  caves,  and  were  clothed  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts. 
The  only  parts  of  Sardinia  which  enjoyed  the  blessings  of 
civilization  were  a  few  Phoenician,  and,  at  a  later  period, 
Carthaginian,  settlements  on  the  coast.     Capital,  Caralis 
(Cagliari),  on  the  southern  coast. 

3.  Corsica  (KVQVOS).  445 
Inhabitants. — Ligurians  and  Iberians,  Phocseans  (see  §  c 

21),  Carthaginians.  The  Phocoeans  founded  on  the  east- 
ern coast  the  city  of  Alalia,  which  afterwards,  as  a  Roman 
colony,  bore  the  name  of  Aleria. 

4.  The  smaller  Islands. 

1.  II va  (Al&ntiu,  now  Elba),  on  the  Etruscan  coast.  446 
It  abounds  in  iron.     2.  Capreee  (now  Capri),  opposite  D 
Naples ;    the  favorite   residence  of  Tiberius.      3.    The 
(eleven)  insulse  ^Eolise  or  Vulcanise  (now  the  Lipari 
islands),  the  largest  was  called  Lipara.     4.  The  ./Egates 
(-ades,  now  the  ./Egadian  islands).    Naval  victory  of  Lu- 
tatius  Catulus  over  the  Carthaginians  (242).     5.  Melite 
(Malta),  with  its  capital  of  the  same  name,  a  Phoanician 
colony.     Under  the  rule  of  Carthage  its  trade  and  manu- 
factures were  exceedingly  flourishing. 


216  EUROPE.-— ROME.      [447—449.  §  91. 


B.  History  of  events  antecedent  to  the  building 

of  Rome. 
§  91.  Legend  concerning  the  immigration  of  the  Trojans 

into  Lalium. 

447  It  would  seem  that  previously  to  the  Trojan  immigra- 
A  tion,  Latium  had  been  visited  by  an  Arcadian   prince, 

named  Evander,  who  built  the  city  of  Palatium,  on  the 
hill  of  the  same  name,  and  introduced  arts  and  civilization 
into  Italy.  With  the  aid  of  Hercules,  who  came  from 
Iberia,  Evander  is  reported  to  have  vanquished  and  slain 
a  giant  named  Cacus,  who  dwelt  on  the  Aventine  (?).  At 
a  later  period,  so  runs  the  tale,  ^Eneas,  accompanied  by  a 
few  Trojans,  and  bearing  with  him  the  statues  of  his  coun- 
try's gods,  landed  in  the  dominions  of  the  Laurentian  king, 
LATINUS,  and  married  his  daughter  LAVINIA.  The  first 
settlement  in  Italy  was  named  by  the  Trojans,  Troja. 
Afterwards  they  founded  Lavinium  (on  the  spot  to  which 
a  sow  had  fled  from  the  knife  of  the  sacrificer). 

B  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli  (at  Ardea),  to  whom  Lavinia  had  been 
previously  betrothed,  declares  war  against  ^Eneas  and  Latinus,  and 
is  vanquished  in  a  battle  in  which  Latinus  loses  his  life.  Turnus 
then,  in  conjunction  with  Mezentius,  kingj  of  Caere,  renews  the  war, 
and  is  also  slain.  The  Latins  nevertheless  are  driven  from  the  field, 
and  ./Eneas  throws  himself  into  the  river  Numicius,  and  thencefor- 
ward receives  divine  honors  under  the  name  of  Jupiter  Indiges. 
lulus  (Ascanius),  the  son  of  ./Eneas,  slays  Mezentius,  and  becomes 
sovereign  of  Latium. 

448  Thirty  years  after  the  building  of  Lavinium,  Ascanius 
led  the  Latins  from  the  pestilential  Maremna  to  the  slope 
of  the  Alban  Mount,  where  he  founded  the  city  of  Alba 
Longa. 

C  The  catalogue  of  fourteen  kings,  from  Ascanius  to  Amulius,  is  of 
very  doubtful  authenticity,  whether  we  regard  the  suspicious  charac- 
ter of  the  names  (which  are  sometimes  repetitions  of  those  which 
occur  in  previous  or  subsequent  history,  sometimes  mere  adaptations 
of  geographical  names,  set  down  at  random  without  any  connecting 
narrative),  or  the  exact  agreement  of  the  dates  with  the  canon  of 
Eratosthenes,  and  not  with  the  usual  Roman  chronology. 

C.    History  of  Rome. 
§  92.  Legend  concerning  the  building  of  Rome. 

449  This  myth  is  known  to  us  under  two  principal  forms : 
1.      Ua,  the   daughter  of  ./Eneas,  was   the   mother  of 


450.    §  93.]  EUROPE. ROME.  217 

Romulus.  2.  Procas,  king  of  Alba,  left  two  sons,  Numi-  (449) 
tor  and  Amulius ;  the  latter  of  whom  wrested  the  sove-  A 
reignty  from  his  elder  brother,  killed  his  nephew,  and 
enrolled  his  niece  Silvia  among  the  vestal  virgins.  Tiie 
maiden  became  pregnant  by  Mars,  and  brought  forth  twin 
sons,  Romulus  and  Remus,  who  were  exposed,  by  com- 
mand of  Amulius,  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  on  a  spot 
flooded  by  the  Tiber,  which  in  after  times  was  indicated 
by  the  ficus  Ruminalis.  The  children,  however,  escaped 
death,  being  suckled  by  a  she-wolf  and  fed  by  a  wood- 
pecker, until  they  were  discovered  by  the  herdsman  of 
Faustinus,  who  placed  them  under  the  care  of  his  wife, 
Acca  Larentia.  As  soon  as  they  were  grown  up,  theB 
brothers  slew  Amulius,  and  replaced  Numitor  on  the 
throne.  A  dispute  respecting  the  building  of  their  new 
city  is  decided  in  favor  of  Romulus  by  the  flight  of 
twelve  vultures — Remus  slain  by  his  brother.  Commem- 
oration of  the  building  of  Rome,  21st  April  (festival  of 
the  Palilia;. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

Rome  under  Kings. 

(B.  c.  753—510.) 

§  93.  Romulus. 
Reigned  thirty-seven  years  (from  B.  c.  753  to  716). 

The  new  city  was  soon  peopled  by  the  opening  of  an  450 
asylum  for  malefactors  of  every  description ;  and  the  c 
overtures  of  Romulus  for  matrimonial  alliances  with  the 
neighboring  nations  having  been  contemptuously  rejected, 
thirty  Latin  and  Sabine  maidens,  who  had  been  invited 
with  their  parents  to  the  festival  of  the  Consualia,  were 
forcibly  carried  off  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  Hence  war 
with  three  Latin  cities  (Csenma,  Antemnse,  and  Crustu- 
merium),  which  were  subdued  one  after  the  other;  and 
with  the  Sabines,  whose  king,  Titus  Tatius,  was  admitted 
into  the  capitol  by  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia.  A  peace 
being  concluded  through  the  intervention  of  the  captive 
maidens  themselves,  the  Romans  and  Sabines  (Quirites) 
formed  a  united  commonwealth,  which  was  governed,  until 


218  EUROPE. — ROME.     [451,  452.  §  94,  95. 

(450)  the  death  of  Tatius,  by  the  two  kings  conjointly — 100 
A  Sabines  were  also  admitted  into  the  senate  founded  by  Ro- 
mulus, which  had  previously  consisted  of  100  Roman  mem- 
bers. War  with  Fidenae,  (related  in  almost  the  same  terms 
as  that  which  happened  in  4*24),  and  with  Veii  (Romulus 
slays  8000  Etruscans !).  During  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
Romulus  is  carried  up. into  heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire  by 
his  father  Mars,  and  appearing  to  Proculus  Julius,  enjoins 
the  people,  through  him,  to  pay  divine  honors  to  their  late 
monarch  as  the  god  Quirinus. 
Interregnum  for  a  year. 


§  94.  Numa  Pompilius. 

Reigned  thirty-nine  years  [according  to  Livy  forty-three  years], 
from  715  to  672. 

451  Numa  Pompilius,  of  Cures,  son-in-law  of  T.  Tatius, 
B  was  chosen  out  of  the  Sabines  by  the  Romans.  He  di- 
vided the  conquered  lands  among  the  people,  and  under 
the  instruction  of  x  the  Camena  Egeria,  commenced  the 
establishment  of  a  regular  system  of  religious  worship, 
appointing  1,  the  Pontifices ;  2,  the  Augures ;  3,  the 
Flammes,  or  priests  of  the  temples ;  4,  the  Vestales  ;  5, 
the  Salii  Palatini,  and  probably  also  (6)  the  Fetiales  (see 
§  165).  To  him  also  is  ascribed  the  division  of  the  year 
into  twelve  months,  as  well  as  the  building  of  the  temple 
of  Janus,  which  remained  closed  during  the  whole  of  his 
peaceful  reign. 


§  95.  Niebuhr's  view  of  the  origin  and  earliest  inhabitants 
of  Rome. 

452  The  inhabitants  of  Rome  (a  Siculian,  and  subsequently 
c  a  Latin  settlement  on  the  Palatine,  founded  at  an  unknown 
period),  having  formed  matrimonial  alliances  (represented 
in  the  myth  by  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  virgins),  and  politi- 
cal engagements  with  the  Quirites,  who  inhabited  the  oppo- 
site hills  of  Capitolinus  and  Quirinalis ;  the  two  nations  soon 
became  one  state,  with  one  senate,  one  general  assembly 
of  the  people,  and  one  king,  chosen  by  one  of  the  two  na- 
tions outof\\\Q  other.  Hence  the  term  Populus  Romanus 
(et)  Quirites. 


453,  454.  §  95.]        EUROPE. — ROMS.  219 

Before  the  formation  of  the  plebs, '  the  Roman  people  453 
consisted  of  Patrons  and   Clients   (dependents,    from  A 
the    verb  cluere,  xlv<»),  a  distinction    almost   universally 
recognized  by  the   Italian  nations,  although  no  historical 
record  exists  of  its  origin.     No  doubt  the  victorious  Casci 
brought  many  clients  with  them,  and  this  number  was 
augmented  by  the  admission  of  foreigners  and  emancipated 
serfs,   and   even  by  the   voluntary  assumption   (by   the 
plebeians)  of  a   status   which   afforded    many  important 
advantages. 

The  patron  was  bound  to  protect  his  client,  plead  his  cause  before 
the  tribunals,  and,  if  he  were  poor,  assign  him  a  portion  of  land  for 
his  support — in  return  for  these  benefits  the  client  was  expected  to 
contribute  towards  the  portions  of  his  patron's  daughters,  release 
him  from  arrest  for  debt,  assist  him  in  the  payment  of  taxes,  &c. 

To  these  Romans   and    Quirlfes   (who  enjoyed  equal  454 
rights),  was  added  at  a  very  early  period  a  third  com-  B 
ponent  part  of  the  Roman  people — the  Luceres  (of  un- 
certain  origin),  who   possessed    inferior   privileges,    and 
thence  were  styled  gentes  minores.     Thus  the  most  ancient 
division  of  the  Roman   people  was   into  three   tribes — 
Ramnes  (Romans),   Titles  (Sabines),  and  Luceres.     The 
three  tribes  were  subdivided  into  thirty  curise,  and  these 
into  300  gentes — consequently,  each  tribe  comprised  100 
gentes,  and  thence  was  also  termed  a  centuria.     Each  tribe  c 
was  presided  over  by  a  tribunus,  each  curia  by  a  curio, 
and  each  gens  by  a  decurio,  who  were  their  magistrates  in 
peace,  and  leaders  in  war.     The  family  of  a  gens  were 
not  necessarily  allied   by  blood,   but  merely  formed  a 

1  According  to  Niebuh^s  latest  views  (I.  452,  3rd  edit.)  the 
Roman  plebs  was  composed  of  the  most  heterogeneous  elements. 
The  community  of  which  the  nucleus  had  been  formed  in  the  three 
original  cities,  owed  almost  all  its  importance  to  the  subsequent 
accession  of  Latins  from  the  places  conquered  by  the  early  kings  of 
Rome,  especially  by  Ancus  Martius.  These  Latins  were  sometimes 
permitted  to  reside  in  their  own  country,  and  sometimes  transferred 
to  Rome — but  in  either  case  they  enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of 
Roman  citizens  According  to  Walter  (Geschichte  des  Rom  Rechts, 
S.  11),  the  origin  of  the  patricians  may  be  traced  to  the  Casci,  who 
took  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  land  on  the  conquest  of 
Latium,  and  that  of  the  plebeians  to  the  vanquished  Siculi,  who  were 
permitted  to  retain  a  portion  of  the  soil. 


220  EUROPE.— ROME.      [455—457.  §96. 

(454)  corporation  the  members  of  which  were  connected  by  a 
A  common  sacra,  the  obligation  imposed  on  them  to  assist 
one  another,  and  the  right  of  inheritance.  They  all  bore 
the  same  nomen  gentile.  Each  gens  sent  its  president 
(decurio)  as  a  deputy  to  the  senate,  which  consequently 
contained  300  members. 


§  96.   The  earliest   constitution  of  Rome   under    Servius 
Tullius. 

455  The  supreme  authority  was  divided  between  the  king, 
B  the  senate,  and  the  comitia  of  the  curiae. 

The  Kin-g  was  chosen  for  life  by  the  curice  (at  first  by 
those  of  one  tribe),  on  the  nomination  of  the  senate  ;  and 
after  the  election  had  been  ratified  by  a  favorable  augury 
from  the  gods,  was  invested  with  the  sovereign  authority 
(according  to  the  provisions  of  the  lex  curiata  de  imperio) 
by  the  curise  of  all  the  tribes.  This  authority  was  three- 
fold— priestly,  judicial,  and  military.  The  first  was  ex- 
ercised when  the  king  offered  sacrifice  for  all  his  people  ; 
as  judge,  he  sat  every  nine  days  to  hear  complaints,  and 
either  decided  disputes  himself,  or  commissioned  judges  to 
c  perform  that  duty.  From  this  sentence  the  patricians,  how- 
ever, enjoyed  the  right  of  uprovocatiotothe  citizens.  Lastly, 
as  commander-in-chief  he  possessed  unlimited  power  in 
time  of  war,  and  during  his  absence  in  the  field  was  repre- 
sented at  home  by  a  senator  nominated  by  himself,  with 
the  title  of  custos  urbis.  A  certain  portion  of  the  ager 
publicus  was  set  apart  for  his  support. 

456  The  Senate,  which  at  first  consisted  of  100  members, 
after  the  union  of  the  Romans  and  Quirites  of  200,  and 
from  the  time  of  Tarquinius  Priscus  of  300,  and  was 
divided  into  thirty  decuriae,  was  called  together  by  the 
king  for  the  dispatch  of  public  business. 

457  The  Comitia  Curiata,  in  which  the  patricians  alone, 
D  and  not  their  clients,  took  part,  decided  questions  of  war 

and  peace,  the  adoption  of  new  laws,  and  the  choice  of 
the  king  and  other  officers,  but  were  always  restricted  to 
the  consideration  of  subjects  proposed  by  the  senate. 

During  the  interval  beween  the  death  of  a  king  and  the 
election  of  his  successor,  the  ten  chief  members  of  the 


45S,  459.  §  97,  98.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  221 

senate    (i.  e.   the    presidents  of  the  ten  decurice  of  the  (457) 
Ramnes)  acted  as  Interreges,  each  of  them  being  in- A 
vested  with  sovereign  authority  and  bearing  the  insignia  of 
royalty  for  five  days.     If  at  the  expiration  of  fifty  days 
a  new  king  were  not  chosen,  the  cycle  began  afresh. 


§  97.   Tullus  Hoslilius. 
Reigned  thirty-two  years  (672—640.) 

* 

A  warwithAlbaLonga,  the  head  of  the  Latin  con-  458 
federacy,  which  had  broken  out  in  consequence  of  mutual  B 
depredations,  was  decided  favorably  for  the  Romans,  by  a 
victory  gained,  according   to   the    legend,  by  the   three 
Horatii  (Romans  ?)  over  the  three  Curiatii  (Albans  ?),  in  a 
combat  proposed  by  the  Alban  dictator,  Mettius  Fuffetius. 
The  surviving  Horatius  murders  his  sister;  but  the  sen- 
tence of  death  passed  on  him  is  remitted  at  the  intercession 
of  his  father. 

Second  war  with  Veii  and  Fidense,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Mettius  Fuffetius,  whose  attempted  desertion  to 
the  enemy  in  the  midst  of  a  battle  is  punished  by  the  c 
tearing  of  his  body  into  four  quarters.  Alba  is  levelled  with 
the  ground,  and  its  inhabitants  transported  to  the  Caelian 
mount.  During  a  successful  war  with  the  Sabines,  a  pes- 
tilence breaks  out  at  Rome.  Tullus  himself  sickens,  and 
is  slain  by  lightning  as  he  stands  before  the  altar. 


§  98.  Ancus  Marcius. 

Reigned  twenty- three  years  (according  to  Cicero  ;  according  to  Livy 
twenty-four  years,  640 — 616). 

Ancus,  the  son  of  Numa's  daughter,  caused  the  laws  459 
respecting  religion  to  be  written  out,  and  exposed  to  view  D 
in  a  public  place. 

A  war  with  four  Latin  cities  (Politorium,  Tellenae, 
Ficana,  and  Medullia),  occasioned  by  depredations  in  the 
Roman  territories,  was  speedily  terminated,  and  the  in- 
habitants transferred  to  the  Aventine.  Ancus  founded 
Ostia,  the  first  Roman  colony,  built  the  career,  erected  the 
pons  Sublicius,  and  fortified  the  Janiculum. 


222  EUROPE.— ROME.  [460.  §  99. 

§  99.  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

Reigned  thirty-eight  years  (616 — 578.) 
Damaratus 

Aruns  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus, 

married  to  Tanaquil. 


Ep 

erius            L.  Tarquinius  sup., 
married    the   2  daughters   of 
Servius  Tullius  (i.  e.  first 
one,  then  the  other  who  was 
first  married  to  Aruns) 
1.  The  elder  Tullia. 
2.  The  younger  Tullia. 

Arnus, 
married 
to  the 
younger 
Tullia. 

Tarqu 
marrit 
M.Ju 

TJ.    Tiinin 

inia, 
d  to 
nius. 

s   Rnidis 

L.  Tarq.  Sextus,  Titus,  Aruns. 

Collatinus, 

married  to 

Lucretia. 

460  Tarquinius,  a  son,  according  to  the  legend,  of  the 
A  Bacchiad  Damaratus,  who  took  refuge  at  Tarquinii  from 
the  tyranny  of  Cypselus  of  Corinth,  came  to  Rome  with 
his  wife  Tanaquil,  and  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  sons 
of  Ancus,  but,  after  the  death  of  that  prince,  was  himself 
chosen  king,  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  alternate  choice  of 
Roman  and  Quiritic  kings.  His  victories  (over  the  Latini, 
Sabini,  and  ^Equi,  and  according  to  Dionysius  the  over- 
throw  of  twelve  Etruscan  cities),  are  less  memorable  than 
his  architectural  labors  and  the  changes  which  he  effected 
B  in  the  constitution.  He  began  the  wall  round  the  city, 
which  was  completed  by  Servius,  built  the  cloacae,  and 
in  the  valleys  thus  drained  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Forum, 
and  of  the  Circus  Maximus  for  the  celebration  of  the 
ludi  Romani  or  magni.  At  the  same  time  he  increased 
the  number  of  senators  to  300  by  the  admission  of  the 
Luceres,  and  that  of  the  vestals  to  six  ;  and  was  inclined 
to  form  three  new  tribes  out  of  the  plebeians,  whom  his 
various  conquests  had  rendered  exceedingly  numerous ; 
but  the  opposition  of  the  ruling  order  (the  Augur  Attus 
Navius)  compelled  him  to  content  himself  with  merely 
doubling  t/ie  number  of  the  gentes  by  a  selection  from  the 
plebeians.  These  new  gentes  were  enrolled  (with  inferior 
privileges)  among  the  ancient  gentes,  with  the  title  of 
Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Luceres  secundi.  In  the  same  manner 


461,  462.  §100,  101.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  223 

the  three  ancient  knightly  tribes  were  retained,  but  the  (460) 
number  of  knights  was  doubled,  so  as  to  form  six  centuries.  A 
Tarquin  died  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  sons  of  Ancus. 

§  100.   Servius  Tullius. 
Reigned  forty-four  years  (578 — 534). 

According  to  the  legend,  Servius  was  the  offspring  of  461 
some  god  by  Ocrisia,  a  female  slave  of  Queen  Tanaquil 
(hence  his  name  of  Servius).  In  consequence  of  a 
luminous  appearance  on  his  head,  Servius  is  educated  as 
the  king's  son,  whose  daughter  he  marries,  and  after  his 
death  becomes  viceroy,  and  subsequently  king  (successful 
war  against  Veii).  He  obtained  for  Rome  admission  into  B 
the  Latin  confederacy,  and  built  a  second  confederate 
temple  (that  of  Diana)  on  the  Aventine,  where  the  Roman 
king  offered  sacrifice  for  Romans  and  Latins,  as  the  head 
of  the  Latin  confederacy  did  at  the  feriae  Latinse  on  the 
Alban  Mount.  For  the  wall  of  Servius  Tullius,  see  §  90. 
He  was  murdered  by  his  son-in-law  L.  Tarquinius 
Superbus,  who,  after  the  assassination  of  his  brother 
Aruns,  had  married  his  widow  Tullia,  the  murderess  of 
her  own  sister,  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  those 
senators  who  were  discontented  with  the  institutions  of 
Servius  (see  §  101). 

§  101.    The  Constitution  of  Servius  Tullius. 

The  chief  object  of  the  constitution  of  Servius  Tullius  462 
was  the  organization  of  the  Plebs,  anew  and  im- c 
portant  order,  which  had  been  created,  principally  since 
the  reign  of  Ancus  Martius,  by  the  naturalization  of  the 
inhabitants  of  conquered  places,  and  possessed  no  incon- 
siderable influence,  in  consequence  of  its  numbers  and 
property.  It  consisted  exclusively  of  free  agriculturists,1 
dwelling  in  the  city  and  suburbs,  but  chiefly  in  the  country 
towns  and  harnlets.  Servius  was  well  aware  that  the  only 
security  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  at  home,  and  for  the 
prosperity'  of  the  republic,  was  the  admission  of  these 

1  The  names  of  persons  engaging  in  trade  or  mechanical  employ- 
ments, or  convicted  of  gross  offences,  were  erased  from  the  register 
of  their  Tribus,  and  placed  among  the  serarii. 
11 


224  EUROPE. ROME.  [463.    §  101. 

(462)  supplemental  citizens  to  political  privileges,  and  to  a  par- 
A  ticipation  in  the  distinctions  enjoyed  by  others.  He  there- 
fore commenced  his  reforms  with  the  partition  of  the 
Roman  territories  into  thirty  "regiones;"  viz.,  the  city 
into  four  urbanae  (Suburana,  Esquilina,  Collina,  Palatina), 
and  the  country  into  twenty-six  rusticse.  The  plebeians 
settled  in  each  region  formed  a  community,  which,  like  the 
patrician  tribes,  was  denominated  Tribus,  and  had  a  tri- 
bune as  its  president.  Thus  the  plebeians  in  the  thirty 
tribes  corresponded  to  the  patricians  in  the  thirty  curiae. 
463  With  the  view  of  extending  the  enjoyment  of  civil 
B  rights  to  the  plebeians  (especially  as  regarded  the  privilege 
of  voting),  and  of  defining,  at  the  same  time,  the  extent  of 
their  liability  to  taxation  and  the  performance  of  military 
service,  Servius  introduced  (with  reference  to  the  assem- 
blies of  the  people  and  the  muster  of  the  army)  a  new 
division  of  the  inhabitants  into  Centuriae,  in  which  the 
patricians  (and  their  clients  ?)  were  comprehended,  together 
with  the  plebeians.  According  to  this  division,  the  nation 
consisted  of  three  grand  component  parts,  viz. — 
c  A.  Eighteen  centuries  of  knights  (or  cavalry  soldiers), 
six  patrician  and  twelve  plebeian. 

B.  The  infantry,  divided  into  five  classes,  or  170 
centuries. 

1.  Thos*  ^vho  possessed  at  least 

100,000    asses  =  80  centuries. 

2.  "  75,000)        , 

3.  "  50,000  V  e^n  —  60  centuries. 

4.  "  25,500)    ^ 

5.  "  12,000        "          30  centuries, 
D      C.  Those  not  comprehended  in  the  classes,  seven 

(or  five)  centuries,  viz. — 

1.  Fabri,  one  century. 

2.  Liticines  and  cornicines,  two  centuries. 

3.  Accensi  and  velati  (with  1500 — 12,500  asses),  tw<? 
centuries(?). 

4.  Proletarii  (with  375 — 1500  asses),  one  century. 

5.  Capite  censi  (with  less  than  375  asses),  one  century. ' 

1  This  representation  of  the  Centuriffi  (as  collected  by  Niebuhr 
from  ancient  testimonies,  especially  Cic.  de  Rep.  ii.  22)  differs  but 
little  from  the  accounts  given  by  Dionysius  and  Livy ;  and  that  only 
in  the  case  of  the  centuries  which  were  not  comprehended  in  the 


464—466.  §101.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  225 

Each  century  had  a  voice  in  the  assembly  of  the  people  ;  464 
the  votes  of  the  knights  and  the  first  class  deciding  the  A 
question,  provided  they  voted  on  the  same  side.  They 
formed  also,  in  war,  divisions,  of  course  of  very  unequal 
strength.  Thus  there  existed  a  very  intimate  connection 
between  the  military  and  civil  constitutions  of  the  king- 
dom ;  the  same  men  (the  cavalry  and  heavy-armed)  who 
led  the  charge  in  the  field  deciding  the  questions  proposed 
in  the  assembly  of  the  people.  In  each  of  the  five  classes, 
half  the  number  of  centuries  assigned  to  the  class  belonged 
to  the  juniors,  and  the  other  half  to  the  seniors,  in  order 
that  the  latter,  although  inferior  in  numbers,  might  possess 
their  full  share  of  influence.  Tradesmen  and  artisans  who  B 
possessed  no  landed  property  formed  a  distinct  class  ;  the 
members  of  which  were  exempt  from  military  service,  but 
were  liable  to  taxation,  and  thence  called  aerarii. 

The  property  qualification  was  settled  by  the  Census,  which  was  465 
held  in  each  lustrum  (every  five  years1),  at  first  by  the  king,  then  by 
the  consuls,  and  at  a  later  period  by  the  censors.  It  comprehended 
houses,  lands,  slaves,  cattle,  brass,  and  the  precious  metals.  Each 
Roman  was  compelled,  under  heavy  penalties,  to  give  in  an  account 
of  all  these  items,  as  well  as  of  the  births  and  deaths  in  his  family, 
the  attainment  of  the  age  of  puberty  by  any  of  its  members,  and  all 
changes  of  residence  or  transfers  of  property.  The  administration  of 
the  public  exchequer  was  intrusted  to  two  qua3stores  classic!. 

The  comitia  centuriata,  i.  e.  the  general  assembly  466 
of  the  people,  convoked  by  the  king  on  the  Campus  Mar-  c 
tius,  was  invested  by  Servius  with  the  threefold  privilege 
hitherto  enjoyed    by  the  comitia  curiata,   viz. — 1,    The 
right  of  adopting  new  laws ;    2,  the  election  of  kings ; 
and,  3,  the  decision  of  questions  relating  to  peace  and 
war.     In  elections  and  legislation,  however,  they  possessed 
merely  the  right  of  accepting  or  rejecting  candidates,  or 

classes.  These  writers  make  no  distinction  between  the  proletarii 
and  the  capite  ccnsi  (a  distinction  expressly  stated  by  Gell.  xvi.  10) : 
both  also  make  two  centuries  of  fabri,  &.c.  Cic.  (1.  c.)  knew  of  but 
one.  Moreover,  Dionysius  makes  no  mention  of  the  accensi  and 
vclati,  and  consequently  reckons  193  centuries.  Livy  makes  194 
centuries,  one  consisting  of  the  accensi.  In  recent  investigations  the 
number  193  is  generally  retained,  as  being  mentioned  in  three  distinct 
passages  of  Dionysius. 

1  This  was  decidedly  the  older  signification  of  the  word  lustrum, 
but  it  never  acquired  the  fixed  meaning  that  belonged  to  the  Greek 
Olympiad. 


226  EUROPE.— ROME.     [467-— 469.  §102. 

(466)  measures  proposed  to  them  by  the  senate ;  and  even  this 
A  signification  of  their  acquiescence  in  any  proposal  had  not 
the  force  of  law  until  it  was  confirmed  by  the  curise.  By 
the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables,  the  judicia  capitis  (decisions 
respecting  offences  punishable  by  death  or  banishment) 
were  committed  to  the  comitia  centuriate. 

467  The  Military  Constitution. 

1.  The  knights  (equites)  served  on  horseback.  The  state  granted 
them  10,000  asses  for  their  outfit,  and  an  annual  allowance  of  20UO 
asses  (the  payment  of  which  was  charged  on  rich  virgins,  widows, 
and  orphans)  for  the  support  of  a  war-horse,  and  the  maintenance  of 
a  mounted  yeoman  with  his  horse.  The  census  equester — one  mil- 
lion of  asses — belongs  to  a  later  period.  See  §  131. 
B  2.  The  classes,  and  only  they  [cf.  463  D],  were  equally  divided 
into  centuries  of  juniores  and  seniores ;  the  former,  which  compre- 
hended all  males  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  forty-five,  being 
destined  for  service  in  the  field,  the  latter  (from  forty-six  to  sixty)  for 
the  defence  of  the  city.  The  Roman  legion  consisted  originally  of 
1200  men.  The  three  first  classes  were  heavily  armed,  and  the 
fourth  lightly.  The  fifth  served  as  slingers  in  front  of  the  line. 

3.  The  acccnsi  and  velati  stood  apart  from  the  legion:  "but  one 
by  one  they  filled  up  the  gaps  that  were  made,  and  received  arms 
for  that  purpose."     Niebuhr  i.  441. 

4.  The  Proletarii  were  armed  by  the  state  only  in  extraordinary 
cases, — the  capite  censi  and  cBrarii  never. 

§  102.  L.  Tarquinius  Superbus. 
Reigned  twenty-five  years  (534 — 510). 

468  Without  any  election  on  the  part  of  the  people,  or  con- 
c  firmation  by  the  curiae,  Tarquin  ascended  the  throne  of 

his  murdered  father-in-law,  and  commenced  his  cruel  and 
oppressive  reign  under  the  protection  of  a  body-guard, 
which  enabled  him  to  bid  defiance  to  the  resentment  of  his 
subjects.  The  senate,  reduced  by  murders  and  banish, 
ments,  was  no  longer  convoked ;  heavy  taxes  were  im- 
posed on  the  plebeians,  who  were  not  only  deprived  of 
the  privileges  conferred  on  them  by  Servius,  but  compelled 
to  perform  feudal  service  :  the  Latins  and  Hernicans  were 
subjugated,  and  Tarquin  presided  as  head  of  the  Latin 
confederacy  at  the  feriae  Latinae  on  the  Alban  Mount. 

469  His  Wars. 

D  1.  He  is  said  to  have  carried  Sv^ssa  Pometia  by  storm, 
sold  its  inhabitants  (the  city  nevertheless  was  recaptured 
in  503),  and  employed  the  booty  in  building  the  Capitoline 
temple  of  Jupiter,  and  those  of  Juno  and  Minerva,  where 


470 — 472.  §  103.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  227 

the  three  Sibylline  books,  purchased  from  an  unknown  old  (469) 
woman,  were  preserved  in  a  subterraneous  cell  by  two  A 
(afterwards  by  ten,  and  from  the  time  of  Sulla  fifteen) 
guardians. 

2.  Gabii,  which  had  refused  to  join  the  Roman  alliance,  470 
was  taken  by  stratagem  and  treachery. 

The  narrative  of  the  self-mutilation  of  Sextus,  and  of  the  advice 
conveyed  by  the  act  of  cutting  off  the  poppy  heads,  seem  to  be 
adaptations  to  Roman  history  of  the  story  of  Zopyrus  (83  u),  and  the 
answer  of  Thrasybulus  to  Periander ;  both  recorded  by  Herodotus. 
Mission  of  Titus  and  Aruns  to  Delphi,  accompanied  by  their  cousin, 
L.  Junius  Brutus  (whose  life  had  been  saved  by  his  feigning  mad- 
ness). 

3.  During  the  siege  of  Ardea,  the  wealthy  capital  of  471 
the  Rutuli,  a  dispute  arose  between  the  sons  of  the  king  B 
and  their  cousin,  L.  Tarquinius  of  Collatia,  respecting  the 
virtue  of  their  respective  wives.     Lucretia  is  dishonored 

by  Sextus,  and  dies  by  her  own  hand.  Brutus,  as  Tribunus 
Celerum,  assembles  the  people,  who  banish  the  Tarquins, 
abolish  the  sovereignty,  and  lodge  the  supreme  power  in 
the  hands  of  two  praetors  (afterwards  named  consuls), 
who  hold  their  office  for  a  year.  The  two  first  are  L. 
Junius  Brutus  and  L.  Tarquinius  Collatinus.  The  con- 
stitution  of  Servius  is  restored,  and  remains  unchanged  in 
all  essential  particulars. 

The  flight  of  the  king  (regifugium  or  fugalia)  was  commemorated  c 
yearly  on  the  24th  of  February.  An  armistice  for  fifteen  years 
seems  to  have  been  concluded  with  Ardea ;  but  in  the  commercial 
treaty  between  Rome  and  Carthage  (in  509),  Ardea  is  mentioned  as 
a  city  subject  to  Rome.  There  are  several  inconsistencies  in  the 
chronology  of  this  period.  Tanaquil  must  have  lived  to  the  age  of 
1 J  5  years,  and  Brutus  is  called  a  child  (at  the  beginning  of  Tarquin's 
reign),  and  twenty-five  years  later  is  mentioned  as  the  father  of 
grown-up  sons. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 
Rome  as  a  free  State. 

(B.  c.  509—30.) 
a.  Aristocracy. 

(509—366.) 

§  103.   The  Consuls. 

The  consuls  (a  term  probably  equivalent  to  collega),  472 
who  were  named  prsetores  until  the  time  of  the  decem- 


228  EUROPE.— ROME.     [473 — 475.  §104. 

(472)  virate,  were  at  first  exclusively  patricians,  but  from  the 

A  year  365  plebeians  were  also  eligible  to  the  office.     By 

the  lex  annalis  (180),  none  could  be  consuls  who  had  not 

attained  their  forty-third  year,  and  already  discharged  the 

offices  of  quaestor,  aedile,  and  praetor. 

The  election  by  the  centuries  was  always  succeeded  by  the  con- 
firmation (or  approbation  of  the  gods,  declared  by  an  augurium)  and 
by  investiture,  on  the  part  of  the  curia.  The  day  of  their  entering 
on  office  was  different  at  different  periods.  From  the  year  154  it 
was  on  the  first  of  January. 

473  At  first  the  consuls  possessed  an  authority  almost  equiv- 
B  alent  to  that  of  the  kings  (the  priestly  duties  alone  being 

committed  to  a  separate  functionary  termed  rex  sacrorum), 
but  this  power  was  gradually  circumscribed,  at  first  by  the 
provocatio,  afterwards  by  the  intercession  of  the  tribunes  of 
the  people,  and  the  separation  of  the  censorship  and  prae- 
torship  from  the  consulship.  Under  extraordinary  circum- 
stances of  danger,  the  consuls  were  invested  by  the  senate 
with  unlimited  powers.  They  might  be  impeached  at  the 
expiration  of  their  year  of  office.  Under  the  emperors, 
the  consulship  continued  nominally  to  exist  until  the  reign 
of  Justinian  (A.  D.  541).  The  year  was  named  after  them. 

§  104.   Consequences  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins. 

474  Tarquin  retired  to  Caere,  and  thence  to  Tarquinii.     A 
c  conspiracy  against  the  new  constitution  organized  by  his 

emissaries  at  Rome  was  betrayed ;  the  sons  of  Brutus 
slain,  by  command  of  their  own  father,  for  participation  in 
the  plot,  and  the  whole  gens  Tarquinia  banished,  including 
even  Tarquinius  Collatinus,  whose  place  as  consul  was 
filled  by  P.  Valerius  (as  consul  suffectus).  The  royal 
demesnes  were  consecrated  to  the  god  Mars,  and  named 
the  Campus  Martius.  The  number  of  senators,  which  had 
been  diminished  by  proscriptions  and  murders  in  the  reign 
of  Tarquin,  was  again  raised  to  300  by  the  admission  of 
plebeian  knights  (conscripti). 

475  War  with  Veii  (and  Tarquinii?    500).      The  leaders  of  the 
D  cavalry  on  both  sides,  Aruns,  the  son  of  Tarquin,  and  Brutus,  having 

fallen  each  by  the  other's  hand,  the  combat  remained  undecided,  until 
the  voice  of  the  forest  daemon  proclaimed  at  midnight  that  victory 
belonged  to  the  Romans,  because  the  Etruscans  had  lost  one  man 
more  than  their  enemies!  The  Roman  matrons  mourn  a  whole 
year  for  Brutus. 


476—478.  §104.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  229 

P.  Valerius  (Publicol a)  obtains  for  the  plebeians, by  the  lexde  (475) 
provocatione,  the  right  of  appealing  (within  the  distance  of  one  mile  x 
from   the  city)  from  the  sentence  of  a  censul  to  the  assembly  of  the 
people  ;  that  is,  to  the  comitia  centuriata.     First  commercial  treaty 
with  Carthage,  by  which  the  Romans  were  prohibited  from  navi- 
gating  the   seas    southward   of   the    Hermaean    promontory    (509). 
Dedication  of  the  Capitoliue  temple  by  the  consul  suffectus,  M.  Ho- 
ratius,  the  first  who  drove  the  clavus  as  a  mark  for  reckoning  time 
(508?). 

The  war  with  Porsenna  of  Clusium  (508?  insti-  476 
gated,  it  is  said,  by  the  Tarquins)  was  rich,  if  we  may 
believe  the  legend,  in  heroic  deeds,  such  as  the  defence  of 
the  bridge  over  the  Tiber  by  Horatius  Codes,  the  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  of  Mutius  Sccev6la  to  assassinate  Porsenna, 
the  escape  of  Clcelia,  &c. ;  but  there  seems  to  be  much 
embellishment  and  improbability  in  the  narrative,  in  the 
account  especially  of  one  fact — the  unresisted  occupation 
of  the  Janiculum  by  the  Etruscan  army,  and  the  conse- 
quent famine.  After  carrying  on  this  war  for  some  time,  B 
the  Romans  were  compelled  to  conclude  an  ignominious 
peace.  The  city  was  given  up  to  the  enemy,  its  inhabit- 
ants disarmed,  a  third  of  their  territory  taken  from  them 
(the  number  of  the  tribes  reduced  to  twenty),  and  the  re- 
mainder probably  held  by  the  Romans  as  tributaries ;  the 
royal  insignia  were  sent  to  Clusium  in  token  of  subjection, 
and  twenty  hostages  (among  whom  was  Clodia)  were  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  conqueror. 

Under  the  name  of  a  dictatorship  (an  office  of  Latin  477 
origin),  the  royal  authority  was  revived  (without  provo-  c 
catio)  for  a  period  not  exceeding  six  months,  in  times  of 
extraordinary  embarrassment  and  danger.     The  first  dic- 
tator was  appointed  in  501,  when  Rome  was  threatened 
with  a  Latin  war.     By  the  establishment  of  such  an  office, 
the  government  hoped  to  obtain  that  unity  and  promptitude 
of  action  which  can  only  be  secured  by  the  delegation  of 
absolute  power  to  an  individual. 

The  dictator,  taken  at  first  exclusively  from  the  patricians  and 
consulares,  but  at  a  later  period  (355)  from  the  plebeians  also,  was 
elected  in  the  same  manner  as  the  kings. 

War  with  the  Latins,  who  had  thrown  off  their  al-  478 
legiance  to  Rome  during  the  Etruscan  war,  and  were  in  D 
arms,  probably  at  the  instigation  of  the  Tarquins.     The 
Romans  claim  the  victory  in  a  battle  on  the  banks  of  the 
lake  Regillus  (496  ?},-  the  account  of  which  has  a  very 


230  EUROPE.— ROME.       [479,  480.  §  105. 

(478)  poetical  character ;  but  a  few  years  later  they  concede  to 
A  the  Latins,  and  subsequently  to  the  Hernicans,  the  right 
of  sharing  the  command'of  the  allied  army,  and  an  equal 
portion  of  the  booty  and  conquered  territories. 

King  Tarquin,  now  in  his  ninetieth  year,  is  wounded  in  a  single 
combat  with  the  Roman  dictator  Postumius,  who  is  perhaps  men- 
tioned as  commander  in  this  battle  merely  on  account  of  his  family 
name  Regillensis.  The  Dioscuri  are  also  reported  to  have  appeared 
during  the  engagement. 

§  105.  Secession  of  the  Plels,  494. 

479  Their  condition  before  the  Secession. 

B  After  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  the  plebeians  had  been 
favored  by  the  restoration  of  the  constitution  granted  by 
Servius  Tullius,  the  Valerian  laws,  &c. ;  but  no  sooner 
was  the  Etruscan  war  terminated,  and  all  fear  of  dis- 
turbance from  the  Tarquins  at  an  end,  than  the  patrician 
party  began  to  press  heavily  on  them.  The  dictatorship 
was  created  with  the  view  of  curtailing  their  privileges, 
and  all  participation  in  the  lands,  won  by  their  own  swords, 
refused  to  those  who  were  the  sole  payers  of  the  tribQtum, 

c  and  composed  the  flower  of  the  army.  In  addition  to 
these  wrongs,  the  plebeians,  who  had  been  ruined  by  re- 
peated predatory  wars,  and  were  deeply  indebted  to 
patrician  usurers,  were  subjected  to  a  severe  law  of  debtor 
and  creditor.  Any  one  who  had  given  personal  security 
for  the  repayment  of  money  borrowed  was  termed  nexus. 
If  he  failed  to  redeem  his  pledge  within  a  given  time,  he 
was  assigned  (addictus)  to  his  creditor  as  a  serf,  and  lost 
his  civil  rights  (capite  deminutus). 

480  The  Secession. 

D  The  people,  roused  by  the  sight  of  an  old  soldier  who 
had  oeen  imprisoned  for  debt  and  escaped  from  his 
dungeon,  demanded  the  abolition  of  arrest,  and  refused  to 
serve  in  the  army  (495  and  494),  but  were  persuaded  to 
take  the  field  by  the  arguments  of  the  consul,  P.  Servilius, 
and  the  dictator,  M.  Valerius,  and  returned  victorious  (over 
the  Sabines,  Volscians,  and  yEquians).  Finding,  however, 
the  promises  of  their  commanders  unfulfilled  by  the  senate, 
the  plebeians  crossed  the  Anio,  and  occupied  the  mons 
sacer  in  the  territory  of  Crustumorium.  After  a  few  days 
(not  four  months,  as  asserted  by  Dionysius),  the  patricians, 
through  the  intervention  of  Mcnenius  Agrippa  (his  alle- 


481,  482.  §  106.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  231 

gory  of  the  belly  and  the  members),  concluded  a  formal  (480) 
peace  with  the  plebeians ;  the  engagements  of  those  who  A 
were  unable  to  pay  being  declared  void,  whilst  the  right  of 
arrest  remained  as  before.  At  the  same  time,  the  ple- 
beians were  placed  under  the  protection  of  magistrates  of 
their  own  (the  five,  afterwards  ten,  Tribunes),  who  were 
chosen  by  the  centuries  out  of  the  five  classes,  subject  to  the 
confirmation  of  the  curies  (curiee);  until  the  passing  of  a 
law,  proposed  by  Volero  Publilius  (471),  by  which  it  was 
enacted  that  they  should  be  chosen  by  the  tribes,  without 
any  such  confirmation.  The  persons  of  these  tribunes 
were  sacred  and  inviolable  (sacrosancti) .  Object  andB 
powers.  Protection  of  the  people  against  the  patrician 
authorities  (within  the  distance  of  one  mile  from  the  city), 
in  order  to  secure  the  right  of  appeal ;  together  with  the 
power  of  calling  the  magistrates  to  account  before  the 
tribes  at  the  expiration  of  their  year  of  office.  In  the 
college  of  Tribunes  all  questions  were  decided  by  a  majority 
of  votes;  but  at  a  later  period  (about  400)  the  veto  of  an 
individual  was  sufficient  to  neutralize  a  proposal  or  resolution 
(intercedere).  They  summoned  the  people  (without  consult-  c 
ing  the  auspices)  to  the  comitia  tributa,  in  the  forum, 
where  resolutions  (p  1  e  b  i  s c  i  t  a)  were  adopted,  affecting  at 
first  only  the  interests  of  the  plebs,  but,  after  the  passing 
of  the  law  of  Volero  Publilius,  comprehending  all  ques- 
tions of  state  policy.  At  a  still  later  period  (by  the  lex 
Valeria,  see  490,  4)  these  plebiscita  were  declared  equally 
authoritative  with  the  decrees  of  the  comitia  centuriata. 

The  sediles  plebeii  (an  office  which  perhaps  existed  481 
at  an  earlier  period),  were  charged  with  the  superintend- 
ence of  religious  festivals,  and  the  guardianship  of  the  ple- 
beian archives.  They  seem  also  to  have  been  intrusted 
with  the  administration  of  the  communal  .exchequer,  and 
the  execution  of  all  police  regulations  affecting  the  plebs. 

The  attempt  to  obtain  for  the  plebs  a  share  of  the  ager  publicus  433 
completely  miscarried.  The  consul,  Sp.  Cassius,  by  whom  the  law  D 
was  proposed,  was  impeached  at  the  close  of  his  year  of  office,  by  the 
populus  (not  the  plebs,  whose  benefactor  he  had  been,  but  the 
curias),  and  being  pronounced  guilty  of  aiming  at  absolute  power, 
was  beheaded,  and  his  house  levelled  with  the  ground.  His  law 
although  in  all  probability  adopted,  was  never  carried  into  execution  ; 
and  when,  at  a  later  period,  one  T.  Genucius,  a  tribune,  ventured  to 
charge  all  the  consuls  who  had  been  elected  since  the  time  of  Cassius 
with  having  neglected  its  provisions,  he  was  silenced  by  the  dagger 
of  an  assassin. 


232  EUROPE. — ROME.     [483 — 485.  §  106. 

§  106.    Wars  to  the  period  of  the  Decemvirate. 

483  1.  The  war  with  the  Volsci. 

A  The  war  with  the  Volscians  continued  after  the  con. 
clusionof  peace  with  the  plebs.  Inthe  year 493  (?)  Cn.  Mar- 
cius  is  said  to  have  taken  Corioli,  and  thence  obtained  the 
surname  of  Coriolanus,  but  as  Corioli  was  one  of  the  thirty 
Latin  cities,  it  could  not  have  been  attacked  by  the 
Romans.  Having  been  condemned  by  the  comitia  tributa 
for  proposing,  during  a  season  of  scarcity,  that  corn  (im- 
ported from  Sicily?)  should  be  distributed  among  the  people 
on  condition  of  their  renouncing  the  tribunate,  Marcius 
at  once  went  over  to  the  Volscians,  with  all  his  adherents; 
and  taking  the  command  of  their  forces,  captured  several 

B  Latin  cities  ;  among  the  rest  Corioli.  Advancing  to  Rome, 
he  summoned  the  city  to  surrender  unconditionally,  de- 
manding, at  the  same  time,  the  restoration  of  all  the  dis- 
tricts which  had  been  forcibly  taken  from  the  Volscians, 
and  the  recall  of  the  Roman  settlers ;  but  being  overcome, 
it  is  said,  by  the  entreaties  of  his  mother  and  wife,  he 
raised  the  siege  and  returned  into  the  country  of  the 
Volscians,  where  he  lived  in  peace  to  extreme  old  age.1 

484  2.  War  of  the  Fabii  against  Veii  (482 — 474). 
With  the  view  of  recovering  the  territory  which  had 

been  wrested  from  them  by  the  Etruscans,  as  well  as  of 
finding  employment  for  the  plebeians,  the  patricians,  chiefly 
at  the  instance  of  the  gens  Fabia,  renewed  the  war  with 
Veii,  which  was  terminated  by  a  peace  for  forty  years. 

485  The  plebeians  having  refused  to  serve  in  the  army,  306  Fabii,  with 
their  families  and  clients,  established  themselves  in  a  fortress  on  the 
river  Cremera,  where  they  were  all  (with  the  exception  of  one  boy,) 
cut  to  pieces  by  the  Veientines  ;  having  been  allured,  according  to  the 
commonly  received  story,  to  a  distance  from  their  stronghold   by  the 
prospect  of  booty,' or,  as  another  legend  relates,  having  set  out  un- 
armed for  Rome,  with  the  intention  of  offering  sacrifice.     Like  Por- 
senna  in  days  of  yore,  the  Veientines  appeared  on  the  Janiculum,  but 
after  a  few  skirmishes,  they  were  driven  back,  and  having  sustained 
another  defeat  close  to  the  gate  of  their  own  city,  were  glad  to  accept 
conditions  of  jpeace. 

1  There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this,  after  the  benefits  conferred 
on  the  Volscian  state  by  Coriolanus ;  nor  was  it  until  a  much  later 
period,  that  Roman  vanity  invented  the  myth  of  the  surrender  of  all 
his  conquests  at  the  instance  of  his  mother  and  wife.  To  make  the 
story  consistent,  it  was  necessary  to  add,  that  Coriolanus  was  mur- 
dered by  the  enraged  Volscians. 


486,  487.  §  107.]      EUROPE,— ROME.  233 

Wars  with  the  JSqui  and  Volsci,  to  458.  486 

Both  these  Ausonian  tribes  had  extended  their  authority  A 
over  Latium  as  far  as  the  sea,  and  taken  possession  of 
Antium,  which  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Romans 
(who  colonized  it  in  468) ;  and  again  restored  at  the  Vol- 
scian  peace  in  459.  The  war  with  the  ^Equians  still  con- 
tinued. A  Roman  army  was  beaten  on  the  Algidus  and 
surrounded  by  the  enemy,  but  was  rescued  by  the  dictator, 
L.  Quinctius  Cincinnatus  (458). 

The  narrative  of  his  campaign  on  the  Algidus  is  full  of  improba- 
bilities. 

§  107.   Struggle  of  the  Plebeians  with  the  Patricians  for 
equality  of  Civil  Rights. 

1.  The  rogation  of  the  tribune  C.  Terentilius487 
Harsa  (462).  B 

The  want  of  any  written  code  of  laws  for  the  plebeians, 
and  the  caprice  with  which  patrician  consuls  decided  all 
disputes  between  patricians  and  plebeians,  not  by  any  fixed 
rules,  but  according  to  precedents,  which  might  be  inter- 
preted to  signify  whatever  the  judge  desired,  induced  the 
tribune  C.  Terentilius  Harsa,  to  propose  the  formation  of  a 
code  by  five  or  ten  persons  chosen  from  the  classes.  All 
the  obligations  of  plebeians  towards  the  state  were  to  be 
accurately  defined,  and  a  rule  to  be  established  by  which 
their  disputes  should  thenceforth  be  decided.  On  the  other  c 
hand,  the  patricians,  who  were  well  aware  of  the  advan- 
tages afforded  to  their  order  by  the  uncertain  state  of  the 
law,  endeavored  by  every  means  in  their  power,  even  by 
forcibly  obstructing  the  proceedings  of  the  comitia  tributa, 
to  render  this  "  rogatio  "  ineffective.  After  a  succession  of 
fierce  and  bloody  struggles,  certain  advantages  were  con- 
ceded to  the  plebeians,  such  as  the  doubling  the  number  of 
tribunes  and  placing  the  Aventine  in  the  hands  of  the  com- 
mons ;  and  in  the  end  a  general  measure  of  legislation, 
embracing  the  interests  of  both  classes,  obtained  the  assent 
of  the  curise. 

The  mission  of  three  senators  to  Athens,  for  the  purpose  of  making  D 
themselves  acquainted  with  the  laws  of  Solon  and  those  of  the  other 
Grecian  states,  may  perhaps  be  a  historical  fact,  without  necessarily 
leading  us  to  the  inference  that  the  Roman  code  was  derived  imme- 
diately from  that  of  Athens. 


234  EUROPE.— ROME.      [488,  489.  §  107. 

488  2.  The  first  decemvirate,  451. 

A  After  a  long  delay  on  the  part  of  the  patricians,  and  the 
modification  by  the  plebeians  of  their  original  proposition 
into  the  appointment  of  a  mixed  commission,  selected 
equally  from  both  orders,  the  functions  of  all  magistrates 
were  suspended,  and  ten  senators  appointed,  as  interreges, 
with  irresponsible  authority,  and  instructions  to  frame  a 
code  of  written  laws.  In  accordance  with  these  instruc- 
tions, the  commissioners  produced  a  series  of  legal  pro- 
visions, divided  into  ten  sections,  which  were  engraved  on 
ten  tables  of  brass,  and  hung  up  in  a  conspicuous  place, 
after  they  had  received  the  assent  of  the  senate,  the  centu- 

B  ries  (consequently  of  the  plebs),  and  of  the  curies.  Of 
these  laws,  which  formed  the  groundwork  of  Roman  legis- 
lation down  to  the  time  of  the  emperors,  nothing  now  re- 
mains but  a  few  insignificant  fragments.  One  of  the  most 
important  changes  consequent  on  the  formation  of  this 
code  was  the  admission  of  patricians  into  the  plebeian 
tribes,  which  thus  became  a  national  division,  and  the 
comitia  tributa  a  national  assembly. 

489  3.  The  second  decemvirate  (450)  added  two  new 
c  tables  of  laws ;  but  instead  of  laying  down  their  authority, 

or  making  arrangements  at  the  end  of  their  year  for  the 
election  of  consuls  or  other  magistrates,  the  decemviri  con- 
tinued to  exercise  a  despotic  power,  which  gave  great 
offence  to  the  people  (murder  of  the  veteran  L.  Siccius 
Dentatus,  who  had  counselled  an  insurrection  of  the  com- 
mons). At  length  the  discontent,  which  had  *ong  been 
smouldering,  was  blown  into  a  flame,  by  an  act  of  wanton 
cruelty  on  the  part  of  one  of  the  decemviri.  In  the  midst  of 
a  war  with  the  Sabines  and  ./Equians,  a  young  maiden  named 
Virginia  (the  daughter  of  L.  Virginius,  an  officer  in  the 
army),  who  had  been  assigned,  during  her  father's  absence, 
to  one  of  his  clients  as  a  slave  by  Appius  Claudius,  the 
chief  of  the  decemviri,  was  stabbed  to  the  heart  by  her  own 
father,  as  the  only  mode  of  saving  her  from  dishonor. 
D  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  event,  all  the  plebeians  in 
the  army  returned  to  Rome  and  encamped  on  the  Aven- 
tine.  The  abolition  of  the  decemvirate  being  obstinately 
refused  by  the  patricians,  the  plebeians  again  retired  to  the 
mons  sacer,  whither  they  were  followed  by  L.  Valerius 
and  M.  Horatius,  by  whose  intervention  peace  was  restored 
on  the  following  terms : — the  decemviri  were  required  to  lay 


490,  491.  §  107.]       EUROPE. — ROME.  235 

down  their  office,  the  tribunate  was  re-established,  and  Va-  (489) 
lerius  and  Horatius  were  elected  prcetors,  or,  as  they  were  A 
thenceforth   called,  consuls.      The    decemviri  were  im- 
peached by  Virginius  before  the  plebs,  two  of  their  num- 
ber (Appius  Claudius  and  the  plebeian  Sp.  Oppius),  died  in 
prison,  probably  by  their  own  act,  and  the  rest  escaped 
punishment  by  voluntary  exile.     Their  property  was  con- 
fiscated to  the  use  of  the  state. 

4.  The  lawsofthe  consuls  Valerius  and  Ho  r  a- 490 
tius  (448). 

The  first  endeavor  of  the  newly-elected  consuls  was  to 
establish  on  a  firm  basis  the  freedom  thus  restored  to  the 
people.  With  this  view  the  following  laws  were  enacted — 
1.  The  plebiscita  were  declared  to  be  of  equal  authority  u 
with  the  resolutions  of  the  centuries,  and  had  the  force  of 
law,  when  they  emanated  from,  or  were  sanctioned  by,  the 
senate,  and  confirmed  by  the  curies.  2.  The  right  of  pro- 
vocation against  the  consuls,  and  all  future  magistrates,  was 
secured.  3.  The  inviolability  of  the  tribunes  and  sediles 
plebeii  was  re-established  and  extended  to  the  judges. 

We  find  also,  about  the  same  time,  a  seat  reserved  for  the  tribunes 
in  front  of  the  open  doors  of  the  senate-house,  that  they  might  hear 
the  debates. 

An  essential  change  in  the  constitution  was  effected  by 

5.  The  rogations  of  the  tribune  C.  Canuleius491 
and  his  colleagues,  444.  c 

The  "  rogatio  "  of  the  tribune  C.  Canuleius  for  the 
legalization  of  marriages  (connubium),  between  patri- 
cians and  plebeians,  was  adopted  after  a  severe  struggle ; 
but  when  his  colleagues  proposed  that  one  consul  should 
be  chosen  from  each  of  the  orders,  it  was  settled, 
that  instead  of  thus  dividing  the  office  between  the  patri- 
cians and  plebeians,  the  supreme  authority  should  be  vested 
in  tribuni  militum  consulari  poiestate,  an  office  to 
which  plebeians  were  declared  admissible ;  the  functions  of 
the  censorship  being  at  the  same  time  separated  from 
those  of  the  consular  tribunate,  and  reserved  for  patricians. 
The  number  of  these  military  tribunes  varied  at  different  D 
periods  (three,  four,  six,  eight).  Among  the  six  was  always 
a  praetor  urbanus  (patrician)  ;  and  among  the  eight,  were 
two  censors.  Every  year  a  law  was  passed,  declaring 


236  EUROPE. — ROME.     [492 — 494.  §  107. 

whether  consuls  or  military  tribunes  should  be  elected  for 
the  succeeding  year. 

492  At  first  the  two  Censors  were  taken  exclusively  from 
A  the  patricians  (generally  from  consulares),  but  after  the 

passing  of  the  law  of  Publius  Philo  (338),  they  were  chosen, 
one  from  each  order.  At  the  first  institution  of  the  office, 
they  were  elected  in  each  lustrum  (for  five  years ;  after- 
wards for  eighteen  months,  and  at  a  still  later  period  for 
thirty-two),  originally  by  the  curies,  and  afterwards  by  the 
centuries.  Their  functions  were  twofold  :  1.  Registra- 
tion of  the  citizens  according  to  their  rank  (senators, 
knights,  burgesses),  coupled  with  the  right  of  admitting 
individuals  into,  or  removing  them  from,  the  senate,  the 
B  knightly  order,  and  the  tribes.  The  right  of  expulsion 
was  exercised,  either  in  accordance  with  the  sentence  of  a 
tribunal,  or  (in  the  case  of  offences  not  strictly  cognizable 
by  the  courts)  on  the  individual  responsibility  of  the  cen- 
sor (notatio  censoria).  2.  Administration  of  the  ex- 
chequer. It  was  a  part  of  their  office  to  farm  out  the 
duties  and  similar  sources  of  revenue,  contract  for  public 
works,  and  apportion  the  payment  of  the  tributum  accord- 
ing to  the  census. 

493  During  a  famine,  in  the  year  439,  a  distribution  of  corn  having 
been  made  to  the  people,  by  Sp.  Mselius,  the  richest  of  the  plebeian 
knights,  a  cry  was  immediately  raised    that   secret  meetings  were 
held  in  his  house,  and  arms  deposited  there,  which  it  was  his  inten- 
tion to  use  for  the   purpose  of  raising  himself  to  absolute    power. 

C  L.  Cincinnatus  was  nominated  dictator,  and  the  unarmed,  and 
probably  innocent,  Maelius,  was  shun  in  the  forum,  by  his  master  of 
the  horse.  The  assassin  escaped  impeachment  by  voluntary  exile. 

The  number  of  questores  classici  was  increased  from  two  to  four, 
chosen  without  distinction  from  all  ranks  (420),  and  thenceforth  the 
senate  was  recreated  from  the  list  of  persons  who  had  filled  the  office 
of  quaestor. 

494  Hitherto  all  questions  had  been  decided  in  the  college 
of  tribunes  of  the  people  by  a  majority  of  votes,  but  about 
this  time  (between  415  and  394),  it  was  enacted  that  the 
"veto"  of  any  one  tribune  should  be  sufficient  to  arrest  a 
proposed  decree ;    an  arrangement  which  proved,  in  the 
end,  advantageous  to  the  patricians. 

D  The  practice  was  introduced  of  giving  regular  pay 
(stipendium)  to  the  infantry  (probably  then  for  the  first 
time  to  each  legionary),  for  which  purpose  a  tenth  part  of 
the  ager  publicus  was  set  aside  (305). 


495—499.  §  108,  109.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  237 

§  108.   The  last  war  against  Veii. 
(404—595.) 

After  the  termination  of  the  Sabine  wars  by  the  decisive  victory  495 
of  M.  Horatius,  repeated  wars  were  carried  on  by  the  Romans  (for  A 
the  most  part  successfully),  against  the  ^Equians  and  Volscians. 
Fide nffi,  which  had  expelled  some  Roman  colonists,  was  taken,  and 
afterwards,  in  consequence  of  the  assassination  of  the  Roman  ambas- 
sadors, was  levelled  to  the  ground.     Then  followed  the  last  war 
against  Veii,  which  had  formed  an  alliance  with  Fidenee. 

The  Romans  having  in  vain  demanded  satisfaction  for  496 
the  murder  of  their  ambassadors,  which  had  been  per- 
petrated  at  the  instigation  of  the  king  of  Veii,  declare  war 
against  that  state.     After  a  blockade  often  years,  effected  B 
by  means  of  a  line  of  works  drawn  at  some  distance  round 
the  city,  Veii  is  taken  by  the  dictator  M.  Furius  Camil- 
1  us.    The  account  of  this  capture  belongs  rather  to  poetry 
than  history. 

The  Alban  lake  having,  in  the  driest  season  of  the  year,  overflowed  497 
its  banks,  it  was  declared  by  a  captive  Etruscan  aruspex  (in  accord- 
ance with  the  oracle  of  Delphi),  that  until  the  waters  of  the  lake  were 
confined  to  their  proper  limits  Veii  could  not  be  taken.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  intimation,  the  drawing  off"  of  the  waters  was  under- 
taken by  means  of  a  tunnel,  six  feet  deep,  three  and  a  half  broad  and 
6000  in  length.  Then  the  city  was  taken,  it  is  said,  by  means  of  a 
mine  carried  as  far  as  the  temple  of  Juno.  It  would  seem,  however,  c 
that  neither  this  gallery,  nor  the  tunnel,  was  completed  during  the 
dictatorship  of  Camillus  ;  still  less  could  the  temple  have  been 
reached  with  any  certainty  ;  if  such  a  gallery,  therefore,  were  formed 
at  all,  it  was  probably  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  breach  in  the 
wall.  Similarity  of  this  war  to  that  of  Troy. 

A  body  of  the  plebeians  having  determined  to  quit  Rome  498 
and  settle  in  the  beautifully  situated  and  well-built  city  of 
Veii,  a  portion  of  the  Veientine  territory  was  assigned  to  them 
in  lots  of  seven  jugera  each.  Camillus,  after  his  triumph, 
was  accused  of  appropriating  to  his  own  use  a  portion  of 
the  booty,  and  being  condemned  to  pay  a  "  multa,"  went 
into  exile. 

§  109.    War  with  the  Gauls,  389. 

During  the  last  war  against  Veii,  the  Gauls,  a  Celtic  499 
tribe,  had  crossed  the  Alps  and  entered  Italy,  where  a  D 
portion  of  them  remained,  whilst  the  rest  continued  their 
march  towards  Pannonia.     Having  overthrown  the  Etrus- 
cans and  Umbrians,  the  Italian  division,  under  the  com- 


238  EUROPE. — ROME.  [500.    §  109. 

(499)  mand  of  Brennus,  appeared  before  Clusium  (whither, 
A  according  to  the  legend,  they  had  been  invited  by  a 
burgher  of  the  city,  who  had  failed  to  obtain  redress  for 
the  violation  of  his  wife).  The  Clusinians  applied  to  the 
Romans  for  help,  and  three  ambassadors  (Fabii)  were  sent 
to  treat  with  the  Gauls — but  these  men  took  part  in  the 
battle,  and  slew  one  of  the  Gallic  leaders.  The  Romans 
having  refused  to  deliver  up  their  ambassadors,  an  army 
of  70,000  Gauls  advanced  towards  Rome,  and  on  their 
march  encountered  on  the  banks  of  the  A 1  e  i  a  a  Roman 
army  40,000  strong,  commanded  by  Q.  Sulpicius,  which 
they  utterly  routed,  the  Romans  flying  in  confusion,  some 
to  Rome  and  others  to  Veii.  This  battle  was  fought  on 
the  16th  July,  389.  On  the  18th  of  the  same  month 
Rome  was  taken,  sacked,  and  laid  in  ashes — eighty  aged 
B  patricians  were  slain  in  the  forum.  An  attempt  to  scale 
the  capitol  (which  was  defended  by  Manlius1  with  1000 
armed  followers),  was  discovered  by  the  cry  of  some 
geese,  consecrated  to  Juno.  On  receiving  intelligence  that 
the  Venetians  had  invaded  their  country,  the  Gauls  con- 
sented to  withdraw  their  forces  from  Rome,  on  condition  of 
receiving  1000  pounds'  weight  of  gold.  The  legend  how- 
ever declares,  that  at  this  critical  moment,  Camillus,  the 
Dictator,  appeared  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  soldiers  who 
had  taken  refuge  at  Veii,  prevented  the  payment  of  the 
gold,  twice  overthrew  the  Gauls,  took  Brennus  prisoner, 
and  put  him  to  death. 

c  A  second  plan  of  the  plebeians  for  withdrawing  to  Veii 
was  happily  rendered  abortive  by  Camillus  (thence  sur- 
named  the  second  founder  of  the  city),  and  the  place  dis- 
mantled ;  but  within  a  year  it  was  restored  and  peopled  by 
Capenatians,  Faliscans,  and  Veientines,  who  formed  four 
new  tribes  (22d— 25th.) 


500  M.  Manlius.  Many  persons  having  been  reduced  to  insolvency 
by  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  restoration  of  their  houses  and  re- 
placement of  the  cattle  and  furniture  which  they  had  lost  in  these 
wars,  M.  Manlius,  the  preserver  of  the  capitol,  advanced  money 
without  interest  to  400  ruined  citizens,  demanding  at  the  same  time 
that  all  debts  should  be  liquidated,  either  by  the  sale  of  the  public 

^  fr.  ______  -    -    _  _L, 

1  Manlius  was  sumamed  Capitolinus,  not  because  he  had  saved  the 
capitol,  but  because  he  dwelt  there.  The  name,  according  to  Nie- 
buhr,  already  existed  in  his  family. 


501.    §110.]  EUROPE. — ROME.  239 

lands,  or  out  of  the  Gallic  gold,  which  the  patricians  had  unfairly  (500) 
appropriated  to  their  own  use.     Manlius  was   immediately  thrown  A 
into    prison  by  the    indignant  patricians ;   but  was  soon  afterwards 
liberated  in  consequence  of  an   insurrection  of  the  plebs,  and  ac- 
quitted by  the  centuries.     As  however  he  still  occupied  th*  capitol, 
sentence  was  passed  against  him  by  the  curiffi  in  the  fourth  dictator- 
ship of  Camillus,  and  he  was  treacherously  thrown  from  the  Tar- 
peian  rock  in  the  year  B.  c.  308.    At  the  same  time  a  law  was  passed 
that  thenceforth  no  person  should  inhabit  the  capitol. 


§110.   Termination  of  the  struggle  between  the  Patricians 
and  Plebeians  by  the  Licinian  Rogations. 

(376—366.) 

An  attempt  to  relieve  the  continued  embarrassment  of  501 
the  plebeians  was  made  by  the  tribunes  C.  Liciniuss 
Stolo,  and  L.  Sextius,  who  proposed  the  three  following 
laws :  1 .  That  the  office  of  military  tribune  should  be 
abolished,  and  two  consuls  be  nominated,  one  of  whom 
should  always  be  a  plebeian.  2.  Every  Roman  citizen 
(consequently  every  plebeian)  should  enjoy  a  share  of  the 
ager  publicus,  but  none  should  hold  more  than  500  jugera, 
with  a  correspondent  number  of  heads  of  cattle  in  the 
common  pasture.  The  rent  paid  for  the  use  of  this 
pasture  to  be  farmed  out  from  lustrum  to  lustrum  by  the 
censors,  and  the  proceeds  employed  for  the  payment  of 
the  soldiers.  Land  occupied  by  individuals  to  be  given  c 
up,  and  divided  among  the  plebeians  in  lots  of  seven 
jugera  each.  3.  Debts  to  be  liquidated  by  three  yearly 
instalments,  after  deducting  the  amount  of  interest  already 
paid.  The  reading  of  these  rogations  was  stopped  by 
eight  of  the  tribunes,  who  had  been  gained  over  by  the 
senators ;  but  for  ten  years  the  same  two  men  were  re- 
gularly re-elected  to  the  tribunate,  and  at  last,  in  the  year 
366,  their  rogations  were  adopted,  subject  to  this  con- 
dition, that  the  praetura  urbana  (an  office  established 
chiefly  for  the  administration  of  justice  within  the  city, 
and  hitherto  held  by  a  patrician  military  tribune),  should 
be  -separated  from  the  consulate,  and,  as  well  as  the 
censorship,  be  reserved  for  patricians.  On  the  other  hand,  D 
it  was  settled  that  the  curule  sedileship  (an  office  created 
at  this  time  in  the  room  of  the  qusestores  parricidii), 
should  be  held  alternately  by  patricians  and  plebeians. 


240  EUROPE.— ROME.        [502,  503.  §  110. 

L.  Sextius  was  nominated  the  first  plebeian  consul  in 
365. 

502  The  Praetorship.     The  praetor  urbanus  was  in  some 
A  sort  a  third  consul,  elected  in  the  same  manner  as  the 

consuls,  styled  their  colleague,  exercising  during  their 
absence  the  functions  of  their  office,  and  enjoying  probably 
the  distinction  of  the  six  fasces.  At  first  the  office  was 
open  only  to  patricians,  but  subsequently  (probably  after 
the  law  of  Q.  Publilius  Philo  in  336),  it  was  held  by  a 
patrician  and  plebeian  alternately.  His  principal  duty 
was  the  administration  of  justice,  both  in  criminal  pro- 
ceedings, inasmuch  as  he  presided  over  the  assemblies  of 
the  people,  before  which  offenders  against  the  state  were 
tried,  and  in  civil  more  especially,  it  being  his  business  to 
publish  the  decisions  of  judges  nominated  by  himself,  and 

B  see  that  they  were  carried  into  effect.  His  authority  was 
indicated  by  three  words — dare  (judicem),  dice  re  (sen- 
tentiam),  addict  re  (rem).  When  he  entered  on  his  office, 
the  praetor  published  an  edictum  (or  formula),  which 
served  as  a  guide  for  his  decisions  in  cases  to  which  the 
law  did  not  extend.  He  sat  on  the  Nuridmae  (dies  fasti). 
The  settlement  of  disputes  between  citizens  and  foreigners 
continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  one  of  the  duties  of  the 
consulate;  but  the  increase  of  litigation  consequent  on  the 
extension  of  the  Roman  territories,  and  the  frequent  ab- 
sence of  the  consuls,  at  length  rendered  it  necessary  to 
appoint  a  special  officer  (in  242),  named  praetor  inter 

c  peregrines  et  cives.  The  number  of  prsetors  was  in- 
creased, for  the  administration  of  the  provinces,  to  four 
and  afterwards  to  six  ;  but  after  the  introduction  of  the 
quaestiones  perpetuoe  (144),  these  functionaries  remained 
at  Rome  until  the  expiration  of  their  year  of  office,  when 
they  entered  on  the  government  of  their  province  with 
the  title  of  propraetor.  Sulla  increased  the  number  to 
eight,  and  Caesar  to  sixteen. 

503  The  Curule  JSdiles  (aediles  curules).    Number, 
D  two  ;  alternately  two  patricians  and  two  plebeians.    They 

presided  at  the  ludi  llomani,  of  ^which  at  a  later  period 
(after  the  first  Punic  war),  they  generally  bore  the  ex- 
pense ;  and  were  charged  with  the  inspection  of  public  and 
private  buildings,  streets,  markets,  and  provisions,  as  well 
as  the  investigation  and  prosecution  of  certain  offences. 


504—506.  §111,112.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  241 

It  was  only  after  the  expiration  of  twenty-five  years  (503) 
that   the    plebeians   were    peaceably    established    in   the A 
possession  of  their  newly  acquired  rights.     The  election 
of  consuls  was  often  interrupted  by  the  nomination  of  a 
dictator — and   within  a  space  of  thirteen  years  (354 — 
342),  we  find  seven  illegal  consulates. 


b.  Democracy. 

(B.  c.  366—30.) 

aa.  To  the  subjugation  of  Italy  in  266. 

§  111.   Their  wars — to  the  Samnite  wars. 

(361—346.) 

Four  wars  with  the  Gauls  (361 — 346),  a  succes- 504 
sion  probably  of  fresh  swarms.      The  first  was  decided  B 
by  the  single  combat  of  T.  Manlius  (Torquatus)  with  a 
Gallic  giant,  the  second  and  third  by  victories  obtained  by 
the  Roman  armies,  and  the  fourth  by  the  single  combat  of 
M.  Valerius  (Corvus)  with  a  Gallic  warrior,  and  the  vic- 
tory of  L.  Furius  Camillus  (son  of  M.  Camillus). 

The  Hernicans  were  also  subjugated  after  repeated  defeats ;  but  a  505 
war  with  the  Tarquinians  and  Faliscans  (in  which  C.  Marcius  c 
Rutilus,  the  first  plebeian  dictator,  stormed  the  Etruscan  camp,  and 
triumphed  without  the  consent  of  the  senate),  terminated  ingloriously 
in  an  armistice  for  forty  years. 

§  112.  First  war  with  the  Samnites. 
(342_340.) 

The  Samnites,  a  nation  whose  dominions,  extending  506 
from  the  Hadriatic  to  the  Tyrrhenian  sea,  contained  a  D 
population  exceeding  in  number  the  Romans  with  their 
allies,  having  attacked  the  Sidicini  (whose  capital  was 
Teanum),  that  people  called  in  the  Campanians ;  and  they, 
after  sustaining  two  defeats,  applied  for  assistance  to  the 
Romans.  The  consul,  M.  Valerius  Corvus,  marched  into 
Campania,  and  r.btained  a  victory  at  Mount  Gaurus,  near 
Cumse  (342),  whilst  the  other  consul  (A.  Cornelius 
Cossus),  who  had  penetrated  into  Samnium,  was  sur- 
rounded near  Caudium,  but  afterwards  rescued  by  the 
military  tribune  P.  Decius,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he 


242  EUROPE. — ROME.      [507,  508.  §  1 13. 

(506)  stormed  the  Samnite  encampment.  A  rich  booty  (40,000 
A  shields)  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  after  a  second 
great  victory  gained  by  Valerius  (perhaps  with  both  the 
Roman  armies)  at  Suessula.  In  the  year  341,  fresh 
advantages  were  perhaps  obtained,  but  by  the  Latins  ['  for 
Rome  was  paralyzed  by  the  insurrection  of  the  army.' 
Nicbuhr}.  A  separate  peace  and  separate  alliance  was 
concluded  between  Rome  (without  Latium)  and  the  Sam- 
nites,  one  of  the  conditions  being,  that  the  subjugation  of 
the  Sidicini  should  be  permitted  by  the  Romans. 


§  113.   War  with  the  Latins,  339—337. 

507  The  alliance  between  Rome  and  Latium,  which  had 
B  been  dissolved  after  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Gauls, 

was  renewed  in  357,  when  the  Romans  were  threatened 
with  fresh  danger  from  the  same  quarter  ;  but  the  Latin 
confederation  refused  to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the 
Romans ;  insisting  that  Rome  and  Latium  should  be  united 
into  one  nation,  and  that  the  senate  and  consulate  should 
be  shared  between  them.  The  Romans  having  rejected 
this  demand,  a  Latin  war  broke  out,  which  ended  in  the 
c  complete  subjugation  of  the  Latins.  Two  consular  armies 
marched  through  Samnium  into  Campania  (where  the 
legions  of  the  Latins  were  still  stationed  near  Capua),  and, 
under  the  command  of  T.  Manlius,  obtained,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Samnites,  a  victory  near  Mount  Vesu- 
vius, for  which  they  were  chiefly  indebted  to  the  self- 
sacrifice  of  P.  Decius  Mus.  Manlius  inflicted  capital 
punishment  on  his  son,  who,  in  defiance  of  his  father's  pro- 
•  hibition,  had  slain  a  Latin  general  in  single  combat.  A 
second  victory  gained  by  T.  Manlius  at  Trifanum  broke 
up  the  Latin  confederacy,  the  cities  surrendering  one  by 
one,  and  receiving  Roman  garrisons. 

508  Of  these  cities  some  were  admitted  to  the  full  rights  of  Roman 
_  citizenship,  and  from    one  of  them    two   new  tribes  were  formed ; 

whilst  the  inhabitants  of  others  were  regarded  as  mere  vassals,  with- 
out the  right  of  voting  ;  and  some  Latin  as  well  as  Campanian  places 
were  considered  allies  of  Rome,  as  the  whole  of  Latium  had  formerly 
been.  Antium  lost  its  ships  of  war  (the  rostra  were  carried  to 
Rome),  and  became  a  Roman  colony  ;  the  Latins  were  forbidden  to 
hold  diets,  and  connubium  and  commercium  were  permitted  only 
between  inhabitants  of  the  same  city. 


509—511.    §114.]       EUROPE.—  -ROME.  243 


§  114.    Second  War  with  the  Samnites. 
(325—304.) 

Causes.  —  The  Romans  having  established  a  colony  in  the  Volscian  509 
city  of  Fregellae,  which  had  been  taken  and  sacked  by  the  Samuites,  A 
its  withdrawal  was  required  by  the  original  conquerors,  and  refused. 
About    the    same    time,  the    Romans   demanded    satisfaction   from 
Palaeopolis  and  Neapolis  for  certain  acts  of  plunder  committed  in 
Campania  ;  and  this  being  refused  by  both  cities  (by  advice  of  the 
Tarentines   and   Samnites),  they  were    invested  by  Q.  Publilius 
Philo,  whose  term  of  consular  authority  was  extended.     As  pro- 
consul (the  first  who  ever   bore   that   title)  Philo  obtained  pos- 
session of  Palaiopolis  by  treachery. 

In  order  to  divide  the  forces  of  the  Samnites,  the  510 
Romans  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Apulians,  and  sent  B 
an  army  into  their  country.  At  the  very  commencement 
of  this  war  the  Samnites  were  four  times  defeated  with 
considerable  loss  (by  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  and  L.  Papirius 
Cursor),  and  sued  for  peace  ;  but  being  unable  to  obtain 
any  reasonable  terms  from  the  Romans,  they  continued  the 
war,  and  laid  siege  to  Luceria  (which  had  been  stormed 
by  Fabius,  and  was  now  occupied  by  a  Roman  garrison). 
A  Roman  force,  sent  to  the  relief  of  the  place  (under  the 
consuls,  T.  Veterius  and  Sp.  Postumius),  was  intercepted 
and  beaten  by  the  Samnite  general  C.  Pontius,  in  the 
narrow  passes  near  Caudium  (furculse  Caudmse).  The  c 
survivors,  unable  to  extricate  themselves  from  the  defile, 
capitulated  on  terms,  which,  considering  their  helpless  po- 
sition, were  not  unreasonable,  and,  having  passed  under 
the  yoke,  withdrew  to  Capua  (321).  The  Roman  senate 
having  refuser,  to  ratify  this  capitulation,  the  war  still  con- 
tinued, at  first  with  various  success,  but  latterly  with  de- 
cided advantage  to  the  Romans. 

After  the  battle  of  Caudium,  Luceria  was  taken  by  the  Samnites, 
and  subsequently  (probably  in  315)  recaptured  by  the  Romans,  and 
olonized.  The  war  was  carried  on  with  various  success  (victory  of 
\e  Romans  near  Saticula,  defeat  of  their  army  under  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus  at  Lautulae)  until  the  year  314,  from  which  period  the 
advantage  was  decidedly  on  the  side  of  the  Romans. 

Contemporaneous  War  against  the  Etruscans,  Samnites,  511 
UmbrianSfGnd  Hernicans.  —  The  Etruscans,  who  had  main-  D 
tained  friendly  relations  with  Rome  as  long  as  the  Gauls 
were   in   their   neighborhood,   endeavored,  now  that  the 


244  EUROPE.— ROME.      [512,  513.  §  115. 

(511)  Romans  were  occupied  with  the  Samnite  war,  to  re-establish 
A  their  ancient  boundaries.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  they 
laid  siege  to  the  frontier  fortress  of  Sutrium,  where  they 
were  defeated  by  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  who  then  forced 
his  way  through  the  Ciminian  forest,  and  again  defeated 
the  enemy  near  Peru  si  a  (309).  For  this  victory  Fabius 
was  not  only  rewarded  with  a  triumph,  but  was  also,  as  an 
especial  honor,  re-elected  consul  for  the  following  year. 
Meanwhile,  L.  Papirius  Cursor  (whom  Q.  Fabius,  sup- 
pressing his  personal  dislike,  had  proclaimed  dictator)  ob- 
tained a  victory  over  the  Samnites,  near  Longula.  Fabius 
then  took  the  command  in  Samnium  (except  for  a  short 
period,  during  which  he  marched  against  the  Umbrians, 
who  were  speedily  subdued),  and  overcame  (as  proconsul) 
B  the  Samnites  and  Hernicans  near  Allifae  (307).  Fresh 
victories  were  gained  by  the  consuls  of  the  ensuing  year 
— one  over  the  Hernici,  and  two  over  the  Samnites.  It 
required,  however,  two  more  defeats  at  Bovianum  and 
Tifernum,  305)  to  convince  the  Samnites  that  their  only 
chance  of  safety  consisted  in  their  recognizing  the  su- 
premacy of  Rome.  A  peace  was  concluded  in  304  ;  the 
Samnites  being  permitted  to  retain  their  own  dominions, 
but  losing  their  sovereignty  over  Lucania. 

512  The  armistice  was  renewed  with  the  Etruscans  (from  309)  every 
c  year.  The  revolted  cities  of  the  Hernicans  became  municipia 
[cf.  523,  A],  without  the  right  of  voting,  and  were  deprived  of connu- 
bium  and  commercium  with  the  rest  of  the  Hernicans ;  and  the 
Volscians  and  ^Squians,  who  had  afforded  assistance  to  the  Sam- 
nites, were  compelled  to  accept  the  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship, 
subject  to  the  same  degrading  conditions. 


§  115.    Third  War  with  the  Samnites. 
(298—290.) 

513  The  Lucanians  having  applied  for  aid  against  the  Sam- 
D  nites,  who  had  invaded  their  country  for  the  purpose  of 
re-establishing  their  ancient  supremacy,  the  Romans  de- 
manded the  immediate  evacuation  of  Lucania  ;  and  this 
being  refused,  war  broke  out  afresh.  The  two  first  cam- 
paigns proved  disastrous  to  the  Samnites,  who  then  sent  an 
army  into  Etruria,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Etrus- 
cans, Umbrians,  and  Gauls ;  but  in  the  year  295  they 
were  totally  defeated  near  Se  itlnum  by  Q.  Fabius 


514,  515.  §  116.]      EUROPE.— .ROME.  245 

Maximus  (in  his  fifth  consulate),  whilst  P.  Decius  Mus  (513) 
(for  the  fourth  time  consul)  checked  the  advance  of  the  A 
Gauls  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  life.  The  war  still  continued 
in  Samnium  :  at  first  the  Romans  were  victorious  in  three 
engagements  (at  Luceria,  Aquilonia,  and  C  o  m  i  n  i  u  m), 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  Q.  Fabius  Gurges  (son  of  Fabius 
Maximus)  was  defeated  by  C.  Pontius.  This  loss,  how- 
ever,  was  repaired  by  the  elder  Fabius,  who,  as  his  son's 
lieutenant,  was  once  more  victorious  (it  is  not  known 
where).  The  brave  C.  Pontius  was  taken  prisoner,  con- 
veyed in  triumph  to  Rome,  and  executed  !  Colonies  were  B 
sent  to  Venucia  to  check  the  alliance  between  Tarentum 
and  Samnium.  The  war  with  the  Samnites  (290)  was 
terminated  by  M'.  Curius  Dentatus ;  but  we  are  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  conditions  on  which  peace  was  con- 
cluded.1 

The  Sabines  were  attacked  by  M'.  Curius  Dentatus  (probably  be- 
cause they  had  assisted  the  Samnites  in  the  Etruscan  campaign),  and 
being  speedily  subdued,  were  admitted  to  the  privilege  of  citizenship 
without  the  right  of  voting.  The  sovereignty  of  Rome  now  ex- 
tended to  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  sea. 


§  116.   War  with  Tarentum  and  with  Pyrrlius  of  Epirus. 

(282—272.) 

Soon  after  the  termination  of  the  Samnite  wars,  the  514 
Romans,  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  Lower  Italy,  com-  c 
pelled  the  Lucanians  and  Bruttians  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Thurii  and  placed  a  Roman  garrison  in  the  town.  A  fleet 
of  ten  triremes  being  sent  at  the  same  time  into  the  bay  of 
Tarentum  to  protect  Thurii  by  sea  (in  contravention  of  a 
treaty  with  the  Tarentines,  by  which  the  Romans  were 
prohibited  from  passing  the  promontory  of  Lacinium),  five 
vessels  were  taken  by  the  Tarentines,  Thurii  stormed,  and 
the  garrison  expelled.  An  embassy,  sent  by  the  Romans 
to  demand  satisfaction,  having  been  insulted  by  the  Taren- 
tines, war  was  immediately  proclaimed. 

Being  disappointed   in   their  expectation  of  a  general  515 
rising  of  the  Italian  states,  the  Tarentines  applied  for  as 
sistance  to  Pyrrhus,  king  of   Epirus,  who  entered  the 

1  The  only  notice  on  this  subject  is  found  in  Livy,  Epitome  xi. 
Cum  Samnitibus  pacem  petentibus  fcedus  quarto  renovatum  est. 


246  EUROPE.— ROME.      [516,  517.  §  116. 

(515)  country  (by  the  invitation  of  most  of  the  Greek  cities  in 
A  Lower  Italy)  with  a  considerable  force,  including  twenty 
elephants,  to  which  he  was  chiefly  indebted  for  a  victory 
on  the  banks  of  the  Siris,  near  H  e  r  a  c  1  e  a.  Py rrhus  now 
sent  his  friend,  the  orator  Cineas,  to  offer  peace  to  the 
Romans,  provided  they  were  willing  to  restore  to  his  allies 
(the  Samnites,  Lucanians,  Apulians,  and  Bruttians)  all  the 
places  which  they  had  lost  in  the  war.  This  proposal 
having  been  rejected,  by  the  advice  of  the  blind  Appius 
Claudius,  Pyrrhus  advanced  to  Prseneste,  for  the  purpose 
of  joining  the  Etruscans ;  but  finding  that  they  had  already 
concluded  a  peace  with  Rome,  he  retreated  to  Tarentum, 
and  went  into  winter  quarters. 

B  The  upright  C.  Fabricius  was  sent  with  two  other  Romans  to 
treat  with  Pyrrhus  for  the  liberation  of  his  prisoners,  who  were  per- 
mitted to  visit  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  celebrating  the  Saturnalia ; 
but  being  unable  to  persuade  the  senate  to  conclude  a  peace,  they 
were  obliged  to  return  into  captivity. 

516  The  following  year,  Pyrrhus   attacked   the    places  in 
Apulia,  which  were  garrisoned  by  Roman  soldiers,  and 
compelled  the  consuls  (P.  Sulpicius  and  P.  Decius)  to 
retreat,  after  sustaining  considerable  loss  in  a  battle  fought 
near  Asculum  Apulum,  279.     In  this  battle,  P.  Decius, 
the  grandson,  is  said  to  have  offered  himself  as  a  victim  to 

c  the  infernal  gods.  The  victory,  however,  had  been  dearly 
purchased ;  and  this  circumstance,  joined  to  the  intelligence 
of  an  alliance  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  and  the  inva- 
sion of  Macedonia  by  the  Gauls,  induced  Pyrrhus  to  con- 
clude an  armistice  with  Rome.  An  invitation,  which  he 
soon  afterwards  received  from  the  Syracusans,  to  pass  over 
into  Sicily,  and  protect  them  from  the  Carthaginians,  was 
willingly  accepted,  as  affording  him  an  opportunity  of 
evacuating  Italy  without  loss  of  honor  (comp.  §  40,  II.). 

517  At  the  expiration  of  three  years  he  was  compelled  to 
D  abandon  Sicily,  taking  with  him  the  treasures  which  he  had 

acquired  there,  and  returned  into  Italy,  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  Samnites,  Lucanians,  and  Bruttians,  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Romans.  In  the  year  275,  his  mercenaries 
having  been  defeated  by  M'.  Curius  Dentatus,  near  Bene- 
v  en  turn,  Pyrrhus,  leaving  a  garrison  in  Tarentum  under 
the  command  of  Milo,  set  out  on  his  return  to  Epirus,  and 
soon  afterwards  was  slain  at  Argos.  In  the  year  272. 
I 


518—522.  §117.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  247 

Tarentum  was  treacherously  delivered  up  to  the  Romans 
by  Milo. 


§  117.   Complete  Subjugation  of  Italy. 

After  the  termination  of  the  Samnite  wars,  the  Galli518 
Sendnes,  in  northern  Umbria,  who  had  been  persuaded  A 
by  the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  to  assist  them  in  pro- 
secuting the  war  against  the  Romans,  encountered  and  ut- 
terly defeated  a  Roman  army.  But  this  insult  was  speedily 
avenged  by  the  consul.  P.  Dolabella,  who  laid  waste  the 
whole  territory  of  the  Senones,  and  overthrew  (at  the  lake 
Vadimon)  the  Boii,  who  were  hastening  to  their  assistance 
(283).  Peace  was  granted  to  the  Boii,  but  the  Sendnes 
were  almost  exterminated ;  the  Etruscan  cities  were  sub- 
dued one  after  another ;  and  those  which  held  out  the 
longest,  obtained  from  the  Romans  (in  consequence  of  the 
advance  of  Pyrrhus  on  Rome)  peace  on  very  favorable 
terms  (280). 

The  Samnites,  Lucanians,  and  Bruttians,  having  519 
recognized  the  supremacy  of  Rome,  after  the  death  of  B 
Pyrrhus  (272),  were  compelled  to  cede  a  portion  of  their 
territory  and  receive  Roman  colonists. 

The  Picentians  were  subdued  after  a  battle  in  268,  and  520 
a  portion  of  them  transplanted  into  southern  Campania,  for 
the  purpose  of  cutting  off  the  Samnites  from  the  Tyrrhenian 
sea. 

The  subjugation  of  the  Sallentinians,  in  Calabria  521 
(266),  completed  the  conquest  of  Italy  as  far  as  the 
rivers  Rubicon  and  Macra. 

Connection  of  the  conquered  States  with  Rome.          532 

A.  As  regards  their  connection  with  Rome,  the  Italian  states  may  _ 
be  divided  into  three  classes. 

1.  Those  nations  which  had  been  admitted  to  the  privi- 
lege ofRpman  citizenship,  either  in  an  inferior  degree  without, 
or  to  its  full  extent  with,  the  right  of  voting.  In  the  latter  case,  they 
were  incorporated  into  the  Roman  tribus. 

2  Those  which  nominally  retained  their  independence,  as  allies 
of  Rome,  being  either  Latins  or  confederates  in  other  parts  of  Italy. 
Both  classes  retained  their  own  territorial  rights,  but  were  bound  to 
furnish  contingents  of  troops,  money,  ships,  corn,  &c.  The  Italian 
confederates  were  those  nations  which,  although  subdued,  had  kept  or 
received  back  from  the  conqueror  their  own  codes  of  laws. 

3.  The  subject  States,  whose  position,  as  regarded  their  con- 
nection with  Rome,  varied  exceedingly ;  some  (revolted  allies,  for 
12 


248  EUROPE. — ROME.     [523—525.  §  118. 

example)  being  deprived  of  their  personal  freedom  and  the  honor  of 
serving  in  war,  whilst  others  were  personally  free,  but  in  other 
respects  subject  to  many  severe  restrictions. 

523      B.  The  circumstances  of  single  cities  were  also  of  a  threefold 
A  character. 

1.  Municipia,  i.  e.  cities,  the  inhabitants  of  which  enjoyed,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  (either  with  or  with- 
out the  suffragium). 

2.  Coloniae;  partly  Roman,  partly  Latin.     For  the  purpose  of 
retaining  a  conquered  people  in  a  state  of  dependence,  the  Romans, 
agreeably  to  an  Italian  usage,  were  accustomed  to   transplant   a 
certain  number  of  Roman  families  (at  first  exclusively  patrician,  but 
afterwards^plebeian  also)  into  some  of  the  cities,  where  they  formed 
a  standing  garrison.     To  these  colonists  were  assigned  the  reserved 
lands,  which  were  generally  a  third,  and  sometimes,  but  very  rarely, 

B  the  whole  of  the  conquered  territory.  A  city  colonized  in  this 
manner  had  a  double  population ;  viz.  the  original  inhabitants,  now 
vassals  of  Rome,  and  occupiers  of  a  portion  only  of  the  estates  which 
had  formerly  been  their  own ;  and  the  new  colonists,  in  whom  the 
entire  administration  of  public  affairs  was  vested.  This  plan  at 
once  secured  a  provision  for  the  poorer  Roman  families,  and  relieved 
Rome  of  her  discontented  citizens.  After  the  union  of  Rome  with 
the  Latin  confederacy,  colonies  were  sent  out  by  the  two  nations 
conjointly.  Hence  the  distinction  between  Roman  and  Latin  colo- 
nies ;  the  former  being  those  which  were  established  previously,  and 
the  latter  subsequently,  to  the  Latin  alliance.  The  sending  out  of  a 
colony  was  consequent  on  a  Senatus  consultum  [or,  as  one  word,  sena- 
tusconsultum],  and  at  a  later  period  on  a  plebiscitum,  and  was  managed 
by  curatores.  The  colonists  were,  as  far  as  possible,  volunteers  ;  but 
if  the  number  of  these  was  insufficient,  others  were  chosen  by  lot. 

C  3.  Prajfecturae  were  municipia  to  which  a  prefect,  or  magis- 
trate charged  with  the  administration  of  the  laws,  was  sent  out 
every  year  from  Rome,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  supremacy 
of  the  Roman  code. 


§  118.  Domestic  History  of  Rome  during  this  period. 

524  From  the  time  that  the  consulate  became  accessible  to 
plebeians,  and  the  most  distinguished  men  of  that  class 
were  admitted  into  the  senate,  or  connected  themselves  by 
marriage  with    patrician  families,  the  offices  which  had 
formerly  been  reserved  for  patricians  gradually  fell  into 
plebeian  hands,  and  the  importance  of  the  patrician  order 
declined. 

525  The  first  decided  step  towards  a  complete  equalization 
D  of  the    two   orders  was  taken  by  the  plebeian  dictator, 

Q.  Publilius  Philo  (338),  who  proposed  three  laws — 
1.  That  plebisclta,  emanating  from  or  approved  by  the 
senate,  should  thenceforth  have  the  force  of  law,  even 


526,  527.  §  119.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  249 

41 

without  the  confirmation  Of  the  curies.  2.  That  the  curies  (525) 
should  beforehand  promise  their  assent  to  any  law  about  A 
to  be  passed  by  the  centuries.  3.  That  one  of  the  censors 
should  always  be  a  plebeian,  as  had  once  already  been  the 
case  under  extraordinary  circumstances  in  the  year  350. 
As  this  legislator  was  the  first  plebeian  praetor  (in  336),  it 
seems  probable  that  the  alternate  appointment  of  a  patri- 
cian and  plebeian  to  that  office  was  secured  by  one  of  his 
laws.  The  dictatorship  had  already  (soon  after  the  passing 
of  the  Licinian  laws  in  355)  been  held  by  a  plebeian  (com- 
pare §  111),  By  the  lex  Ogulnia  (300),  the  plebeians 
were  declared  admissible  to  a  number  of  offices  under  the 
pontifices  and  augures.  The  lex  Maenia  (286?)  ex- B 
tended  the  second  Publilian  law  to  the  election  of  magis- 
trates, and  the  curies,  whose  right  of  confirmation  had  be- 
come a  mere  form,  ceased  to  assemble  for  that  purpose. 
Finally,  the  dictator,  Q.  Hortensius  (after  the  secession 
of  the  plebs  to  Mount  Janiculum,  in  consequence  of  the 
cruelties  practised  by  their  creditors),  declared  the  ple- 
bisclta  binding  on  all  classes,  even  without  the  assent  of 
the  senate  (?).  Thus  the  democracy  was  completely  es- 
tablished. 

In  the  year  312  Appius  Claudius  Caecus  admitted,  as  censor,  the  536 
whole  body  of  libertiiii  into  the  plebs,  to  fill  up  the  number  of  per-  c 
sons  qualified  to  bear  arms,  which  had  been  diminished  by  the  war. 
This  arrangement,  however,  was  set  aside  by  his  successors  (after 
eight  years)  in  the  censorship,  L.  Fabius  and  P.  Decius,  who  con- 
fined the  libertlni  (304)  to  the  city  tribes.     As  the  chief  agitator  on 
this  occasion,  Fabius  received  the  surname  of  Maximus. 

The  increased  amount  of  the  revenue  rendered  it  necessary  to 
appoint  three  censors,  whose  discharge  of  this  office  qualified  them 
for  admission  into  the  senate. 


bb.  From  the  subjugation  of  Italy  to  the  Gracchi. 

(2G6— 133.) 

Foreign  wars. 

§  119.  The  first  Punic  war. 

(264—241.) 

1.  Campaign  in  Sicily. 

Causes. — 1.   In  order  to  secure  their  Sicilian  possessions,  527 
the  Carthaginians  had  supported  the  Tarentines  in  their 


250  EUROPE. — ROME.  [528.    §119. 

(527)  struggles  against  Rome,  and  thus*violated  the  treaty  which 

A  had  been  renewed  with  the  Romans  in  347.  2.  War 
having  been  proclaimed  by  Hiero  II.,  king  of  Syracuse, 
against  the  marauding  Mamertines  (Sabellian  mercenary 
troops),  who  had  made  themselves  masters  of  Messana  and 
the  surrounding  territory,  those  freebooters  separated  into 
two  parties,  one  of  which  admitted  a  Carthaginian  garrison 
into  the  citadel  of  Messana,  whilst  the  other  applied  for 
assistance  to  the  Romans.  Although  these  disputes  had 
been  settled  previously  to  the  arrival  of  the  Romans,  by  a 
compromise  between  Hiero  and  the  Mamertines,  they 
landed  nevertheless,  and  were  admitted  into  Messana, 
where  they  were  blockaded  by  the  Carthaginians  and 

B  Syracusans.  The  place  was,  however,  soon  relieved  by 
Appius  Claudius  Caudex,  who  overcame  both  the  blockad- 
ing armies,  and  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Syracuse.  Most 
of  the  cities  (sixty-seven),  in  the  interior  of  Sicily  having, 
in  the  following  year  (263),  submitted  to  the  Romans, 
Hiero  concluded  a  peace  with  the  invaders,  who  were 
enabled,  with  this  reinforcement,  to  blockade  the  Cartha- 
ginians (under  Hannibal,  the  son  of  Gisgon),  for  seven 
months  in  Agrigentum.  An  army  which  had  marched, 
under  the  command  of  Hanno,  to  the  relief  of  the  place, 
having  been  utterly  routed,  Agrigentum  was  stormed  and 
sacked,  and  25,000  of  its  inhabitants  sold  into  slavery 
(262). 
528  2.  Sicily  the  theatre  of  war  by  sea  and  land 

c  (260—257). 

In  order  to  obtain  possession  of  the  maritime  towns, 
which  were  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  the 
Romans  now  determined  to  create  a  naval  force  ;  and 
taking  a  stranded  Carthaginian  galley  for  their  model,  built 
and  equipped  within  sixty  days  a  fleet  of  130  ships,  the 
command  of  which  was  given  to  C.  D  u  i  1  i  u  s,  who  gained 
the  first  naval  victory  ofFMylaB,  in  the  year  260.  For 
this  success,  which  was  obtained  by  boarding  the  enemy 
(on  bridges  invented  by  the  commander),  and  thus  giving 
to  a  naval  engagement  the  character  of  a  battle  on  land, 

D  Duilius  was  honored  with  a  columna  rostrata.  The  Ro- 
mans now  ventured  to  attack  the  Carthaginian  settlements 
in  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  and  to  establish  themselves  in 
those  islands,  whilst  their  land  forces  subdued  one  city 


529,  530.  §  119.]       EUROPE.— ROME.     .  251 

after  another  in  Sicily.     An  attempt  was  even  made,  by  (528) 
M.  Atilius  Regulus,  to  transfer  the  war  to  Africa  itself,  A 
and  thus  bring  the  struggle  to  a  speedy  issue.     Steering 
for  that  coast  with  a  fleet  of  330  sail,  Regulus  fell  in  with 
a  Carthaginian  fleet  of  350,  off  cape  Ecnomus,  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Sicily,  and  having  dispersed  them,  landed, 
without  opposition,  near  Clupea  in  Africa. 

3.  Campaign  in  Africa  (256—254).  529 
Regulus  sent  back  the  greater  part  of  his  fleet  and  army, 

and,  with  the  remainder,  subdued  almost  the  whole  of  the 
Carthaginian  territory,  and  made  preparations  for  laying 
siege  to  the  capital.  In  their  distress,  the  Carthaginians  B 
sued  for  peace,  but,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  unreasonable 
conditions  required  by  the  Romans,  they  placed  their  army 
under  the  command  of  the  Spartan  general  Xanthippus, 
who  had  recently  landed  with  a  body  of  Greek  merce- 
naries. The  Roman  soldiers,  although  superior  in  num- 
bers, were  unable  to  withstand  the  assaults  of  100  ele- 
phants, and  fled  in  confusion,  leaving  their  commander, 
Regulus,  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the' Carthaginians.  A 
fresh  fleet,  dispatched  to  Africa  by  the  Romans  in  the 
same  year,  annihilated  the  naval  force  of  the  Carthaginians 
off  the  Hermsean  promontory,  and  effected  a  landing 
near  Clupea.  Again  the  Romans  were  victorious  by  land,  c 
but  want  of  provisions  soon  compelled  them  to  re-embark 
on  board  their  ships,  most  of  which  were  lost  in  a  terrible 
storm  off  the  coast  of  Sicily. 

4.  Sicily  a  second  time  the  theatre  of  war  by  530 
sea  and  land  (254— 242).  *\(* 

Another  Roman  fleet  captured  Panormus  and  several 
other  Carthaginian  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  and 
plundered  the  rich  coast  of  Africa,  bordering  on  the  lesser 
Syrtes ;  but  on  the  homeward  voyage  it  was  overtaken  by 
a  storm  (off  the  promontory  of  Palinurus),  and  nearly 
annihilated.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  new  calam-  D 
ity,  the  Roman  senate  determined  to  renounce  naval  \v  ar- 
fare.  Meanwhile  the  war  was  prosecuted  vigorously  by 
land.  In  the  year  250,  L.  Csecilius  Metellus  gained  a 
splendid  victory  near  Panormus,  and  carried  off  104 
elephants  to  adorn  his  triumph.  In  consequence  of  this 
disaster,  the  Carthaginians  were  obliged  to  abandon  the 
whole  of  the  island  except  Lilybseum  and  Drepanum. 


252  EUROPE. — ROME.      [531,  532.  §  120 

(530)  Regulus  was  sent  to  Rome  with  proposals  of  peace,  which 
A  were  rejected.1  On  the  other  hand,  the  endeavors  of  the 
Romans  to  obtain  possession  of  Lilybaeum  and  Drepanum 
were  rendered  abortive  by  the  obstinacy  of  the  besieged ; 
and  an  attempt  to  renew  the  war  by  sea,  ended  in  the 
destruction  of  a  Roman  fleet  commanded  by  that  P.  Clau- 
dius Pulcher  (son  of  Appius  Caecus),  who  had  ordered  the 
sacred  chickens  to  be  thrown  into  the  sea.  This  loss,  the 
third  which  they  had  sustained  by  sea,  induced  the  Romans 
B  again  to  abandon  naval  warfare.  The  Carthaginians  main- 
tained themselves  in  Sicily  seven  years  longer,  under  the 
command  of  Hamilcar  Barcas  (father  of  the  renowned 
Hannibal),  who  principally  occupied  the  fortress  of  Eryx. 
At  length,  in  the  year  242,  the  war  was  terminated  by  a 
decisive  victory  gained  by  a  Roman  fleet  (which  had  been 
fitted  out  by  private  enterprise,  and  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  consul,  C.  Lutatius  Catulus),  over  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  commanded  by  Hanno,  near  the  ^Ega- 
t  i  a  n  islands.  The  exhausted  condition  of  both  nations  now 
rendered  them  desirous  of  peace,  which  was  concluded  on 
the  following  terms : — the  Carthaginians  renounced  all 
authority  over  Sicily  and  the  adjacent  islands,  delivered  up 
the  Roman  prisoners  without  ransom,  and  engaged  to  pay 
c  a  sum  of  3200  talents  (241).  The  whole  of  Sicily,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Syracusan  possessions,  became  the 
first  Roman  province. 

531  A  few  years  later  (238),  the  Romans,  availing  them- 
selves of  the  confusion  occasioned  by  the  war  of  the  Car- 
thaginian mercenaries  (see  §  40,  iii.),  took  possession  of 
Sardinia  and  Corsica,  which,  in  all  probability,  they  had 
never  entirely  abandoned  since  their  first  settlement  in 
those  islands. 


§  120.    War  with  the  Illyrians. 
(230—228.) 

532      Having  in  vain  demanded  satisfaction  from  the  Illyrian 
queen,  Teuta,  for  acts  of  piracy  committed  in  the  Ionian 

1  The  death  of  Regulus,  by  torture,  after  his  return  to  Carthage, 
is  not  mentioned  by  Polybius,  and  is  pronounced  by  Dion  Cassius  to 
be  a  mere  legend. 


533 — 535.  §  121.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  253 

sea,  the  Romans,  after  the  murder  of  one  of  their  ambas-  (532) 
sadors,  declared  war  against  the  Illyrians.     After  the  loss  A 
of  several  cities,  which  soon  yielded  to  the  combined  forces 
of  the  Romans,  and  the  Illyrian  traitor,  Demetrius,  the 
queen  concluded  a  peace  with  the  invaders,  pledging  her- 
self to  pay  a  considerable  tribute,  to  resign  the  greater 
part  of  her  dominions,  and  to  confine  the  navigation  of  her 
fleets  within  very  narrow  limits. 

In  gratitude  for  their  deliverance  from  Illyrian  piracy,  the  Greeks  533 
conferred  on  the  Romans  the  privilege  of  taking  part  in  the  Isth-  j, 
mian  games,  and  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  together  with  the  freedom 
of  the  city  of  Athens. 


§  121.   Conquest  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

The  distribution  among  the  plebeians  (in  consequence  of  534 
the  agrarian  law  of  the  tribune,  C.  Flaminius),  of  the  ager 
Picenus,  which  had  been  forcibly  taken  from  the  Senones, 
occasioned  a  general  rising  of  the  Boii,  Insubres,  and  trans- 
alpine Gsesatae  (226).  The  insurgents  penetrated  into 
Etruria,  where  they  defeated  a  praetorian  army  (near 
Fsesulse?),  but  were  soon  afterwards  attacked  near  Tela- 
mon  by  both  the  consuls,  and  utterly  routed.  After  the  c 
defeat  of  the  Boii,  the  Romans  prosecuted  the  war  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Padus,  in  the  territory  of  the  Insubres, 
where  they  gained  fresh  victories  (Flaminius,  on  the  river 
Addua  ;  Cl.  Marcellus  near  Clastidium,  on  the  Padus),  took 
the  most  important  cities  of  the  Insubres  (Mediolanum, 
Comum),  and  subdued  the  whole  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  (221). 
For  the  security  of  this  nevvly-acquried  territory  colonies 
were  established  in  Placentia  and  Cremona. 

From  the  year  238  to  230  the  Romans  were  engaged  in  wars  with  535 
the  Ligurians,  but    their  campaigns,  although  repeated  almost  an- 
nually during  the  whole  of  that  period,  produced  as  yet  no  decided 
advantage. 


254  EUROPE.— KOME.       [536,  537.  §  122. 

§  122.    Second  Punic  War. 

(218—201.) 
Pedigree  of  the  Scipios. 

L.  Cornelius  Scipio 
Cn.  Cornelius  Scipio  Calvus.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio. 


P.  Corn.  Scipio  L.  Corn.  Scipio 

His  grandson  Afric.  Major  Asiaticus 

P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica  , * > 

|  a  son ;  Cornelia,  the 

P.  Corn.  Sc.  Nasica  Serapio.     who  adopted    mother  of  the 

|  two  Gracchi. 

P.  Corn.  Scipio,  son  of  Paulus  jEmilius 
(thence  surnamed  JEmilianus),  Africa- 
nus  Minor,  Numantinus. 

536  Causes. — With  the  view  of  indemnifying  his  native 
B  city  for  the  loss  of  her  best  provinces,  Sicily  and  Sardinia, 

Hamilcar  Barcas  had  commenced  the  subjugation  of 
Spain,  which  was  carried  on  by  his  son-in-law,  Hasdrubal, 
Until  his  progress  was  stopped  by  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
with  the  Romans,  in  which  he  pledged  himself  not  to  pass 
the  Iberus,  and  to  respect  Saguntum  as  an  ally  of  Rome. 
After  the  assassination  of  Hasdrubal,  the  command  of 
the  army  devolved  on  Hannibal,  son  of  Hamilcar  Barcas, 
who  took  Saguntum,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months.  The 
c  result  of  this  act  of  aggression  was  a  war,  which  Hannibal 
at  once  resolved  to  carry  into  Italy;  and  leaving  his 
brother,  Hasdrubal,  in  Spain,  he  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
(after  subduing  all  the  nations  between  the  Iberus  and  those 
mountains),  traversed  southern  Gaul,  forced  a  passage 
through  the  Rhodanus  [Rhone'],  crossed  the  Alps  in  fifteen 
days  (by  the  Little  S.  Bernard),  and,  in  the  month  of  Octo- 
ber, 218,  appeared  in  Italy  with  20,000  infantry,  6000 
cavairy,  and  a  few  elephants. 

537  The  Romans  had  resolved,  after  the  capture  of  Saguntum,  to  attack 
the  Carthaginians  both  in  Spain  and  Africa.     In  pursuance  of  this 
plan,  one  of  the  consuls,  Tib.  Sempronius,  was  dispatched  into  Sicily 
(in  the  year  iilB),  with  orders   to  effect  a  landing  on  the  African 
coast,  whilst   the  other,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  marched  into   Spain. 
Learning,  however,  on  his  arrival   at  Massilia,  that  Hannibal  had 


538,  539.  §  122.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  255 

already  advanced  as  far  as  Gaul,  Scipio  sent  his  brother,  Cneius 
Scipio,  into  Spain,  and  himself  returned  to  Italy,  to  await  the  arrival 
of  Hannibal. 

A.  The  war  in  Italy  (218—203).  538 

In  the  year  218,  Hannibal  overthrew  both  the  consuls  ;  A 
P.  Cornelius  Scipio  on  the  banks  of  the  Ticlnus,  and 
afterwards  (with  the  aid  of  a  Gallic  reinforcement),  Tib. 
Sempronius  Longus,  on  the  Tre  bi  a.  The  latter  of  these 
generals  had  been  recalled  from  Sicily,  and  had  effected  a 
junction  with  the  remnant  of  Scipio's  beaten  army.  In  the 
year  217  Hannibal  traversed  the  marshes  on  the  banks  of 
the  Arnus,  and  gained  a  third  victory  near  the  lake  Tra- 
si menus,  over  the  raw  legions  of  the  consul  Flaminius, 
who  was  slain  with  most  of  his  soldiers.  Instead  of  ad-  B 
vancing  at  once  on  Rome,  Hannibal  now  marched  into 
Apulia  and  thence  into  Campania,  in  the  hope  of  inducing 
the  allies  of  Rome  to  revolt.  These  movements  were 
closely  watched  by  the  dictator,  Q.  Fabius,  who  hoped,  by 
avoiding  an  engagement,  to  weary  out  the  enemy  (hence 
his  surname  of  Cunctator  [the  Delayer^).  In  the  year  216 
Hannibal  forced  the  consuls,  C.  Terentinus  Varro,  and  L, 
^Emilius  Paulus,  to  give  him  battle  near  Cannae,  and  ob- 
tained a  decisive  victory  through  the  superiority  of  his 
cavalry.  ^Emilius  Paulus  with  40,000  Romans  and  allies  c 
lay  dead  on  the  field.  The  most  important  result  of  this 
victory  was  the  accession  to  the  Carthaginian  cause  of  the 
nations  and  cities  of  central  and  lower  Italy,  together  with 
the  Campanians  and  Samnites,  none  remaining  faithful  to 
tne  Romans  except  the  Latins  and  a  few  insulated  cities 
of  central  and  lower  Italy.  The  Romans  nevertheless 
strained  every  nerve  to  equip  a  fresh  army,  with  which  Q. 
Fabius  Maximus  and  M.  Claudius  Marcellus  checked  the 
advance  of  Hannibal  in  Campania,  defeated  him  twice 
near  Nola,  forced  him  to  retreat  still  further  southwards, 
and  endeavored  to  bring  back  the  revolted  states  to  their 
allegiance. 

Whilst   Hannibal  was  occupied   in   besieging   Tarentum  (which  ^nn 
surrendered,  with  the  exception  of  the  citadel),  the  city  of  Capua,    * 
where  he  had  established   his  head  quarters,1  was  closely  invested  D 

1  Livy's   account  of  the  enervation  of  Hannibal's   army  by  the 
luxuries  of  Capua  is  worthy  of  little  credit ;  for  the  troops,  although 

12* 


256  EUROPE. ROME.  [540.    §  122. 

(539)  by  a  Roman  army.  On  receiving  this  intelligence,  Hannibal,  who 
A  had  failed  in  his  attempts  to  reduce  the  citadel  of  Tarentum,  re- 
turned into  Campania,  attacked  the  blockading  army,  and  spread 
universal  consternation  by  advancing  almost  to  the  gates  of  Rome  * 
(Hannibal  ante  portas!).  Finding  however  that  no  relief  could  be 
afforded  to  Capua,  the  Carthaginian  leader  fell  back  on  Bruttium, 
and  the  Romans,  storming  Capua,  avenged  themselves  by  putting  to 
death  seventy  of  her  senators.  Meanwhile,  the  war  was  prosecuted 
with  various  success  in  the  south  of  Italy,  where  Marcellus  was  three 
times  victorious  in  one  year  (209),  but  in  the  following  he  was  drawn 
into  an  ambuscade  by  Hannibal,  and  lost  his  life.  Tarentum  was  re- 
taken by  Fabius. 

540  Being  unsupported  by  the  government  at  home  through 
B  the  intrigues  of  his  adversary  Hanno,  Hannibal  endea- 
vored to  obtain  the  assistance  of  foreign  powers.  But 
Philip  III.,  king  of  Macedonia,  with  whom  he  had 
concluded  an  alliance  immediately  after  the  battle  of 
Cannce,  was  prevented  from  landing  in  Italy  by  a  Roman 
fleet  which  cruised  in  the  Ionian  sea ;  and  at  the  same 
time  Syracuse,  where  the  Carthaginian  party  had  ob- 
tained the  ascendency,  was  blockaded  by  sea  and  land  by 
M.  Claudius  Marcellus,  and  after  an  obstinate  defence, 
which  lasted  two  years,  was  taken  (212)  by  means  of  the 
engines  invented  by  Archimedes,  among  which,  if  we  may 
c  believe  tradition,  were  several  burning  glasses.  Agri- 
gentum  having  also  been  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  the  remaining  cities  surrendered  voluntarily,  and 
in  the  year  210  the  whole  of  Sicily  became  a  Roman 
province.  It  was  at  length  resolved  by  Hannibal  to  recall 
the  Carthaginian  troops  from  Spain,  where  they  wefe 
stationed  under  the  command  of  his  brothers,  Hasdrubal 
D  and  Mago.  The  former  of  these  generals  crossed  the 
Alps,  but,  before  he  could  join  his  brother,  he  was  attacked 
on  the  banks  of  the  Metaurus  by  both  the  consuls  of  the 
year  210  (M.  Livius  Salinator  and  C.  Claudius  Nero,  the 
latter  of  whom  had  misled  Hannibal  by  the  abandonment 
of  his  camp  near  Canusium),  his  army  completely  routed, 
and  himself  slain.  Mago,  who  had  landed  in  Liguria 
from  the  Balearic  islands,  after  struggling  for  three  years 

unsupported  by  the  Carthaginian  government,  remained  in  Italy  four- 
teen years  after  the  capture  of  that  city. — Niebuhr. 

*  The  story  of  a  battle  before  the  gates  of  Rome  being  twice  pre- 
vented by  a  storm  is  a  mere  poetical  fiction. — Niebuhr. 


541,  542.  §  122.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  257 

against  the    Romans  without   any  important  result,  was  (540) 
recalled  by  the  Carthaginian  government,  together  with  A 
Hannibal,  whose  operations  since  the  battle  of  the  Me- 
taurus  had  been  restricted  to  Bruttium.     Mago  died  on 
the  passage  of  wounds  received  in  his  Italian  campaign. 

B.  Contemporaneous  war  in  Spain  (218 — 206).  541 
Cn.  Scipio,  supported  by  several  Spanish  tribes,  which 

were  struggling  to  liberate  themselves  from  the  Punic 
yoke,  opened  the  campaign  with  the  conquest  of  the 
whole  line  of  coast  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro. 
In  the  second  year  of  the  war,  Publius  Scipio  arrived  in 
Spain  ;  and  for  six  years  the  two  brothers  fought  with 
uniform  success  against  Hasdrubal  and  his  brother  Mago 
(who  had  been  sent  from  Carthage  to  his  assistance).  At  B 
this  period,  nearly  the  whole  of  Spain  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Romans,  but  the  brothers  having  imprudently  divided 
their  forces  (in  211),  with  the  view  of  ending  the  war  at 
once  by  a  simultaneous  attack  on  the  two  hostile  armies, 
both  were  surrounded  by  the  Carthaginians  and  Numidians 
(under  Masinissa),  themselves  slain,  and  their  armies 
almost  annihilated.  The  Carthaginians  now  commenced 
the  re-conquest  of  the  revolted  Spanish  provinces,  but  the 
arrival  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  the  younger  (afterwards 
Africanus),  gave  another  direction  to  the  war.  After  c 
storming  New  Carthage,  the  head-quarters  of  the  Car- 
thaginian army,  Scipio,  who  had  made  himself  exceedingly 
popular  among  the  Spanish  tribes,  overthrew  Hasdrubal 
(near  Bsecula,  to  the  north  of  the  Baetis  [Guadalquiver]), 
and  after  the  departure  of  that  general  gained  a  victory  on 
the  same  spot  over  Mago,  who  retreated  to  Cades,  and 
eventually  followed  his  colleague  into  Italy.  Spain  was  D 
now  (206)  divided  by  the  Romans  into  two  provinces, 
which  they  named  Hispania  Citerior  and  Hispania  Ulterior. 
Scipio,  who,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  had  been  elected 
consul,  instead  of  receiving  Africa  as  his  province  (the 
opposition  of  the  veteran  generals  rendering  such  an 
arrangement  impossible),  was  nominated  governor  of 
Sicily,  permission  being  at  the  same  time  granted  him  to 
transport  an  army  of  volunteers  into  Africa. 

C.  Conclusion  of  the  war  in  Africa  (204—202).  542 
With  this  force  and  the  ships  of  his  allies,  Scipio  (in 


258  EUROPE. — ROME.      [543,  544.  §  123. 

(542)  204)  effected  a  landing  in  Africa,  where  he  was  joined  by 
A  Masinissa,  king  of  the  eastern  Numidians,  who  had  been 
deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  Syphax,  king  of  western 
Numidia.  As  the  husband  of  Sophonisba,  daughter  of 
Hasdrubal,  Syphax  allied  himself  to  the  Carthaginians, 
and  in  conjunction  with  his  father-in-law  planned  an  attack 
on  the  Roman  camp.  But  their  design  was  anticipated  by 
Scipio  and  Masinissa,  who  burnt  the  enemy's  camp,  and 
annihilated  the  combined  Punic  and  Numidian  forces. 
Syphax  then  retreated,  but  was  pursued  into  his  own 
B  dominions  and  taken  prisoner.  Several  cities  having 
fallen,  and  the  capital  itself  being  threatened  by  the  united 
forces  of  Scipio  and  Masinissa,  the  Carthaginian  govern- 
ment deemed  it  advisable  to  recall  Hannibal  and  Mago 
from  Italy.  The  latter  of  these  generals  died,  as  we  have 
already  mentioned,  on  the  voyage.  Hannibal,  after  fruit- 
less endeavors  to  negotiate  a  peace,  sustained  a  signal 
defeat  near  Zama,  on  the  19th  October,  202.  Carthage, 
being  now  blockaded  by  sea  and  land,  was  compelled  to 
accept  peace  on  the  following  terms  : — All  her  ships  of 
war  (except  ten  triremes)  and  elephants  were  lo  be  de- 
livered up  to  the  Romans,  10,000  talents  to  be  paid  within 
fifty  years,  and  no  war  to  be  undertaken  without  the  con- 
sent of  Rome. 

Masinissa  was  rewarded  with  the  sovereignty  of  the  two  Numi- 
dias.  Scipio  obtained  a  triumph  which  was  conducted  on  a  scale 
of  unprecedented  magnificence,  Syphax,  the  captive  monarch  walk- 
ing in  the  procession.  He  was  also  honored  with  the  surname  of 
Africanus  (the  first  instance  of  such  a  name  being  bestowed  in  com- 
memoration of  a  victory).  The  states  of  Lower  Italy,  which  had 
revolted  to  Hannibal,  were  reduced  for  the  most  part  to  the  condition 
of  vassalage. 


§  123.   The  Two  Wars  against  Philip  III.,  king  of 
Macedonia. 

544      Having  thus  established  on  a  firm  basis  their  supremacy 
pin  the  west,  the  Romans  commenced  a  struggle  for  pre- 
ponderance in  the  east,  for  which  the  protection  of  the 
Greeks  furnished  them  with  a  convenient  pretext.     The 
foresight  with  which  these  plans  of  conquest  were  laid; 


545—547.  §123.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  259 

and  the  patience  displayed  in  the  execution  of  them,  were 
the  best  security  for  the  durability  of  their  triumphs. 

First  Macedonian  war  ^214 — 204).  545 

Philip  of  Macedonia  having  formed  an  alliance  with  Hannibal  [cf.  A 
540,  B],  the  Romans  endeavored  to  defeat  his  ambitious  projects  in 
Illyria ;  but  being  unable  to  attain  this  object,  they  courted  the 
friendship  of  Philip's  enemies,  the  warlike  >T!i< >l i;ms,  with  their  allies, 
the  Eleans  and  Lacedaemonians,  Attalus  of  Pergamus,  and  the 
Messenians,  who  had  been  ill-treated  by  the  Macedonian  king.  By 
thus  creating  a  diversion,  they  hoped  to  find  sufficient  employment 
for  Philip  at  home,  and  thus  to  prevent  his  passing  over  into  Italy. 
A  protracted  war  between  Philip  and  the  ^Etolians  with  their  re- 
spective allies  (in  which  the  Romans  latterly  took  hardly  any  part), 
ended  in  a  general  peace  (204),  which  contained  the  seeds  of  fresh 
hostilities,  in  the  provision  that  neither  party  should  make  war  on 
the  allies  of  the  other. 

Second  Macedonian  war  (200 — 197).  546 

Notwithstanding  this  agreement  with  the  Romans,  Philip  B 
continued  to  persecute  their  allies,  the  Illyrians,  and  sent 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Carthaginians  a  body  of  auxiliaries, 
who  fought  against  Scipio  in  the  battle  of  Zama.  After 
the  conclusion  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  Romans 
availed  themselves  of  an  opportunity  of  punishing  Philip, 
afforded  by  the  applications  made  to  them  by  Attalus, 
king  of  Pergamus,  and  the  republic  of  Rhodes,  for  pro- 
tection against  his  tyranny.  The  war  nevertheless  was 
prosecuted  with  little  vigor  or  success,  until  the  time  of 
T.  Quinctius  Flaminius  (son  of  that  Flaminius  who 
was  slain  in  the  battle  of  the  Trasimene  lake).  This  c 
general  soon  made  himself  master  of  the  whole  of  Epirus, 
compelled  the  Achaean  league  to  form  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans,  and,  being  supported  by  the  most  important 
Grecian  states,  put  an  end  to  the  war  (in  197),  by  the 
victory  ofCynoscephale,  in  Thessaly .  Philip  was  com- 
pelled to  renounce  the  Hegemony  of  Greece,  and  to 
evacuate  all  the  Greek  districts  and  towns  of  which  he 
had  taken  possession.  These  places  were  proclaimed  free 
by  Flaminius  at  the  Isthmian  games  in  196. 

Before  he  quitted  Greece,  Flaminius  compelled  the  tyrant  Nabis  547 
to  deliver  up  the  maritime  cities  of  Laconia  and  his  possessions  in  _ 
Crete  ;   but  he  was  still  allowed  to  exercise  some  authority,  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  influence  of  the  Achaeans. 


260  EUROPE.— ROME.     [548,  549.  §  124,  125. 

§  124.    War  with  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria. 
(192—190.) 

For  the  Syrian  war,  see  §  80. 

548  During   the  war   in  Asia,  the  ^tolians,  encouraged   by  a  false 
A  report  of  the  total  defeat  of  L.  Scipio,  had  violated  the  armistice 

and  renewed  the  war  with  the  Romans.  They  were  however 
speedily  subdued  (by  the  consul  iM.  Fulvius  Nobilior),  and  compelled 
to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  Rome.  • 

The  two  Scipios  were  charged  by  the  tribunes  of  the  people  (at 
the  instance  of  M.  Porcius  Cato  Censorius),  with  having  received 
bribes  from  Antiochus  during  the  negotiations  for  peace.  Publius 
retired  to  his  estate  near  Linternum,  where  he  died  in  the  year  185. 
Lucius  was  condemned  to  pay  a  multa,  for  the  discharge  of  which 
his  property  was  sold.  , 

B  The  Romans  having  called  on  Antiochus  to  deliver  up  Hannibal, 
that  general  fled  to  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  and  being  apprehensive 
of  treachery  on  the  part  of  his  new  protector,  he  swallowed  poison 
in  the  year  183. 

§  125.   Third  Macedonian  war. 
(171—168.) 

549  Philip   III.,  who   had    been    greatly  irritated    by   the 
c  vexatious  tyranny  of  the  Romans,  was  engaged  in  pre- 
parations for  a  new  war,  for  the  purpose  of  recovering  the 
dominions  of  which  he  had  been  despoiled,  when  death 
put  an  end  to  his  projects.     The  preparations  were  con- 
tinued by  his  son  and  successor  Perseus,  a  man  of  un- 
decided   character,    who    endeavored    to   strengthen    his 
cause  by  alliances  with  various  nations  in  Greece,  lllyria, 
Rhodes,  Syria,  &c.,  but  was  often  impeded  by  his  own 
avarice  and  cruelty.     The  breaking  out  of  war  was  pre- 
cipitated by  the  conduct   of  a   crafty  and  contemptible 
prince,  named  Eumenes,  of  Pergamus,  who,  fearing  for  his 
Thracian   possessions,  went   to    Rome  and.  disclosed  the 

D  proceedings  of  Perseus  to  the  senate.  The  first  three 
campaigns  were  indecisive ;  but  discipline  having  been 
restored  by  the  appointment  to  the  command-in-chief  of 
L.  JEmilius  Paulus  (son  of  the  general  who  fell  at 
Cannae),  a  battle  was  fought  at  Pydna,  which  lasted 
only  one  hour,  and  decided  the  fate  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy.  Perseus,  who  had  fled  to  Samothrace  at  the 


550,  551.  §  125.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  261 

commencement  of  the  engagement,  was  compelled  to  sur-  (549) 
render,  and  died  in  captivity  at  Alba.  With  a  show  of  A 
generosity  the  Romans  declared  Macedonia  a  free  state, 
but  in  order  to  prepare  the  country  for  submission  to  their 
sovereign  rule,  they  divided  it  into  four  districts,  which 
were  precluded  from  connubium  and  commercium  with 
one  another,  and  required  to  pay  the  half  of  the  tribute 
hitherto  exacted.  The  booty  brought  by  jEmilius  to 
Rome  was  so  enormous,  that  from  that  time  until  the  reign 
of  Augustus  no  direct  taxes  were  paid  by  the  Roman 
citizens ;  but  the  effect  of  this  apparent  indulgence  was  to 
deprive  the  people  of  the  means  of  resistance  which  they 
had  hitherto  possessed  in  refusing  the  tribute,  and  thus  to 
throw  the  whole  management  of  foreign  affairs  into  the 
hands  of  the  senate. 

Illyria  (after  the  defeat  of  king  Genthius)  was  divided,  550 
as  a  punishment  for  its  alliance  with  Perseus,  into  three  B 
districts;  whilst  in  Epirus,  which  had  yielded  to  the 
Romans  almost  without  striking  a  blow,  seventy  cities 
were  sacked  in  one  day,  and  150,000  inhabitants  sold  into 
slavery.  About  1000  of  the  principal  Achseans  (among 
whom  was  Polybius),  being  falsely  accused  by  a  party  of 
traitors  (headed  by  Callicrates)  of  attachment  to  the  cause 
of  Perseus,  were  summoned  to  Rome  (ostensibly  that  they 
might  purge  themselves  from  the  charge)  and  detained 
there,  without  being  allowed  a  hearing,  for  seventeen  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  (in  151),  the  300  who  still 
survived  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  own  country. 

Thenceforward  there   existed   a    predominant   Roman  c 
party  in  each  of  the  Grecian  cities ;  and  the  disputes  of 
these  states  with  one  another  were  fostered  by  the  Romans, 
that  they  might  have  a  pretence  for  acting  the  part  of 
arbitrators,  as  they  had  lately  done  in  Syria  and  Egypt. 

Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  was  compelled  by  the  Romans  to  551 
abandon  his  warlike  designs  on  Egypt  After  his  death,  Demetrius, 
the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne,  was  detained  at  Rome  as  a  hostage, 
and  Antiochus  V.,  a  boy  of  nine  years  old,  appointed  king  in  his 
room,  that  the  Romans  might  be  enabled  to  act  as  his  guardians. 
Demetrius,  however,  escaped  and  regained  possession  of  his  throne. 
With  the  view  of  weakening  Egypt,  the  Romans  divided  the  sove- 
reignty of  that  country  between  two  brothers,  Philometor  and 
Physcon. 


262  EUROPE.— ROME.     [552—554.  §  126,  127. 

§  126.   The  last  Wars  with  Macedonia  and  Greece. 

552  Relying  on  the  discontent  occasioned  by  the  abolition  of 
A  the  royal  authority  in  Macedonia  and  the  measures  gen- 
erally adopted  by  the  Romans,  one  Andriscus (who  gave 
himself  out    as  Philip,  the  brother  and  adopted  son   of 
Perseus,  and  thence  is  commonly  named  Pseudo-Philippus), 
made  an  attempt  to  re-establish  the  Macedonian  monarchy. 

%  After  taking  possession  of  the  whole  of  Macedonia,  and 
making  two  inroads  into  Thessaly,  the  impostor  was  de- 
feated in  two  battles  by  the  Roman  praetor,  Q.  Csecilius 
Me  tell  us,  and  taken  prisoner.  As  a  punishment  for  its 
revolt,  Macedonia  was  made  a  Roman  province  in  the 
year  148. 

553  Of  the  thousand  Achaeans  who  hatl  been  sent  to  Rome, 
B  three  hundred  at  length  returned  to  their  country  after  a 

captivity  of  seventeen  years ;  amongst  them  were  Critolaus 
and  Diaeus,  who  endeavored  to  persuade  their  countrymen 
to  resist  the  Romans ;  upon  this  the  latter,  availing  them- 
selves of  a  dispute  between  the  Achaean  league  and  Sparta 
(for  the  territory  of  Belmina),  declared  the  league  dis- 
solved. Critolaus  now  came  forward  in  the  character  of 
demagogue,  and  proclaimed  war  against  Sparta ;  but  was 
utterly  defeated  near  Scarphea  in  Locris,  by  Metellus  (who 
had  arrived  in  that  country  after  the  destruction  of  the  Mace- 
c  donian  monarchy).  Critolaus  himself  disappeared  during 
the  engagement.  The  more  sensible  among  the  Achseans 
now  sued  for  peace,  but  the  party  of  Critolaus,  headed  by 
Diaeus,  persisted  in  carrying  on  the  war.  Metellus  was 
superseded  by  the  barbarian  L.  Mummius,  who,  after 
gaining  a  victory  atLeucopetraon  the  isthmus,  sacked 
and  burnt  the  city  of  Corinth,  partly  plundered  and  partly 
destroyed  the  other  towns,  which  had  taken  part  against 
Rome,  and  carried  off  the  fairest  works  of  Grecian  art  to 
adorn  his  triumph.  In  the  year  146,  Hellas,  with  the 
Peloponnesus,  was  proclaimed  a  Roman  province,  under 
the  name  of  Achaia,  by  ten  commissioners  sent  from 
Rome  for  that  purpose. 

§  127.   The  Third  Punic  war. 
(150—146.) 

554  The  Carthaginians  having  made  war  on  Masinissa  with- 
out  the  permission  of  the  Romans,  it  was  resolved  by  the 


555.  §  128.]  EUROPE. — ROME.  263 

Roman  senate,  on  the  motion  of  M.  Porcius  Cato  (whose  (554) 
mediation  had  been  rejected  by  the  Carthaginians),  in  A 
opposition  to  the  opinion  of  P.  Corn.  Scipio  Naslca,  to 
declare  the  peace  at  an  end.  The  Roman  consuls  then 
compelled  the  Carthaginians  to  give  up  all  their  ships  and 
weapons ;  and  having  thus  disarmed  them,  required  them 
to  abandon  their  city  and  build  another,  two  miles  from 
the  sea.  In  their  despair  the  Carthaginians  offered  a 
furious  resistance,  which  continued  for  two  years.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  P.  Corn.  Scipio  Africanus  (147)  being 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  cut  off  all  communication 
by  land  with  the  besieged  city  by  establishing  an  in- 
trenched camp  on  the  isthmus,  and  at  the  same  time 
blockaded  the  harbor  by  means  of  a  dam.  In  the  follow.  B 
ing  year  the  inhabitants,  worn  out  by  famine,  surrendered 
after  bravely  fighting  from  street  to  street  for  six  days. 
The  city  was  then  plundered  and  destroyed  ;  and  the 
whole  of  the  Carthaginian  empire,  except  that  portion  which 
belonged  to  Numidia,  became  a  Roman  province,  under 
the  name  of  Africa,  with  Utica  for  its  capital. 


§  128.  Further  Wars  in  Spain. 
(200—133.) 

Although  the  Romans  had  been  accustomed  since  the  555 
year  20(>  to  consider  Spain  as  one  of  their  provinces,  it  c 
was  full  200  years  from  the  first  invasion  before  they 
obtained  quiet  possession  of  the  peninsula,  the  last  Canta- 
brians  having  yielded  to  Augustus  B.  c.  19.  Until  133 
they  were  perpetually  occupied  in  putting  down  revolts  of 
the  Spanish  tribes.  A  brilliant  victory  over  the  Celtiberi 
(195)  placed  the  whole  of  Spain  on  this  side  the  Iberus  at 
the  disposal  of  the  consul  M.  Porcius  Cato,  who  com- 
manded the  inhabitants  of  all  the  towns  to  demolish  their 
walls  on  the  same  day.  The  war  nevertheless  continued,  D 
not  only  with  the  Lusitani  in  further  Spain,  but  with  the 
Celtiberi  on  this  side  the  river — and  from  153  to  133 
without  intermission.  The  most  determined  opposition 
was  offered  by  the  Lusitani  until  the  death  of  their  leader 
Viriathus,  a  brave  herdsman,  who  was  assassinated 
during  sleep  by  his  faithless  comrades.  The  war  which 
was  still  carried  on  successfully  by  the  Celtiberians,  and 


264  EUROPE.— ROME.     [556—558.  §  129,  130. 

(555)  especially  by  the  Numantians,  was  at  last  terminated  by  P. 
A  Cornelius  Scipio  ^Emilius  Africanus  Minor,  who 
destroyed  the  fortress  of  Num  ant ia  on  the  Durius  after 
a  siege  of  fifteen  months  (133).  Hence  his  surname  of 
Numantlnus.  From  that  time  the  whole  of  Spain,  with 
the  exception  of  the  northern  highlands,  became  subject  to 
the  dominion  of  the  Romans. 


$  129.    Wars  against  the  Gauls,  Ligurians,  Carnians,  and 
Istrians. 

556  During   the    progress    of  these    events   in   Spain   the 
B  Romans  were  constantly  engaged  in  struggles  with  the 

Cisalpine  Gauls,  who  had  been  subdued  previously  to  the 
second  Punic  war,  and  with  the  Ligurians.  The  result 
of  these  disputes  was  the  subjugation  of  the  dislrict  termed 
"Provincia"  in  Transalpine  Gaul. 

557  During  the  second  Punic  war  the  Gauls  had  attached  themselves 
to  Hannibal.     After  the  conclusion  of  that  war,  the  Gallic  and  Ligu- 
rian   campaigns   were    repeated   almost   annually ;   the   former  for 
eighteen  (200—182),  and  the  latter  for  forty  yesrs  (193— 154).    The 
aid  given  by  the  Romans  to  the  city  of  Massilia  against  the  neigh- 
boring Gallic  tribes  afforded  them  an  opportunity  of  making  con- 
quests also  in  Transalpine    Gaul,  where  the  first  Roman  colonies, 

c  Aqua  Sextiae  and  Narbo,  were  established  in  123.  Fresh  conquests 
speedily  followed  their  interference  in  the  disputes  of  the  Gallic 
tribes — the  Arverni  became  dependent  on  Rome  under  the  name  of 
allies,  and  the  Allobroges  Roman  subjects  The  territories  thus 
acquired  formed  a  Roman  province,  which  in  later  times  was  deno- 
minated pre-eminently  "  Provincia"  (hence  the  modem  name  of 
Provence). 

The  Carnians,  Istrians,  and  Dalmatians,  were  also  sub- 
jugated (colony  of  A  quilei  a  founded),  as  well  as  the  Bale- 
aric islands. 


§  130.  First  Insurrection  oftlie  Slaves  in  Sicily. 
(136—131.) 

558  The  cruelties  to  which  they  were  subjected  in  Sicily 
D  occasioned  a  general  insurrection  of  the  slaves,  who  invited 
the  Syrian  Eunus  to  become  their  king  (Antiochus).  At 
the  head  of  70,000  men,  this  leader  made  head  for  a  while 
against  the  Roman  armies;  but  the  reduction  of  tlxir 
principal  fortresses, Tauromeniurn  and  Enna(by  Rupilius), 


559 — 561.  §131.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  265 

and  the  capture  of  Eunus  himself  at  length  put  an  end  to 
the  insurrection. 


§  131.  Domestic  History  during  this  period. 

During  this  period  the  republic  reached  its  highest  state  559 
of  development.  The  distinction  between  patricians  and  A 
plebeians  had  become  obsolete  (hence  since  the  year  174 
both  consuls  had  frequently  been  plebeians),  and  the 
struggles  between  the  hereditary  nobility  and  commons 
were  at  an  end.  The  term  "  Populus  "  now  comprehended 
the  entire  population  (the  comitia  centuriata),  including  of 
course  the  plebs.  On  the  other  hand,  there  arose  a  new 
order  of  nobility,  consisting  of  persons  whose  ancestors 
had  filled  curule  offices  (the  consulate,  prsetorship,  sedile- 
ship).  In  contradistinction  to  these  nobiles  or  opiimates,  B 
the  families  which  had  never  produced  .any  magistrates  of 
the  higher  order  were  termed  ignoWes  or  obscuri,  and 
their  members  homines  novi.  The  nobles  not  only  endea- 
vored, like  the  patricians  at  an  earlier  period,  to  retain  as 
far  as  possible  all  the  higher  offices  among  themselves,  but 
were  anxious  also  to  give  them  more  importance  and  a 
more  extensive  sphere  of  action  (the  censorship  and 
auspices). 

The  exclusion  of  all  but  the  richest  families  from  this  order  was  5gQ 
the  necessary  consequence  of  a  practice,  which  prevailed  from  the 
time  of  the  first  Punic  war,  of  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  public 
games,  not  out  of  the  exchequer,  but  from  the  private  resources  of 
the  aediles.  Thus  none  but  wealthy  men  were  admissible  to  the 
sedileship,  which  was  the  first  step  to  the  higher  offices  of  state. 
The  equestrian  dignity  was  also  in  the  hands  of  the  rich,  the  rank 
having  no  longer  any  connection  with  actual  military  service  in  the 
cavalry,  but  belonging  to  all  who  possessed  a  certain  census  equester 
(1  mill,  asses).  Thus  there  arose  eventually  a  distinction  between 
equites  and  ordo  equester.  The  knights,  on  account  of  their  pecu- 
niary transactions  and  the  farming  of  the  public  revenues,  were  in  a 
variety  of  ways  dependent  on  the  senate  and  the  censors,  and  were 
obliged  in  consequence  to  take  part  with  the  optimates  ;  as  were  also 
the  allies,  whose  affairs  were  administered  by  the  senate. 

Increase  in  the  number  of  Praetors. — In  addition  561 
to  the  prsetor  urbanus,  a  second  praetor  was  appointed  in  D 
242,  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  between  foreigners  re- 
sident at  Rome  and  between  foreigners  and  Roman  citizens. 
Four  praetors  were  soon  added  for  the  administration  of 


266  EUROPE. — ROME.      [562,  563.  §  131. 

(561)  the  provinces — viz.  two  for  Sicily  and  Sardinia  (in  227), 
A  and  two  for  the  two  Spains  (199).  But  latterly  all  these 
magistrates  remained  at  Rome,  during  their  year  of  office, 
as  presidents  oTthe  four  standing  criminal  tribunals  (quae- 
stiones  perpetuse),  which  had  been  established  for  the  trial 
of  the  more  common  offences,  in  the  room  of  the  comitia 
centuriata.  At  the  commencement  of  their  second  year 
the  whole  body  of  praetors,  who  then  assumed  the  title  of 
propraetors,  set  out  for  the  provinces  assigned  to  them  by 
lot,  accompanied  by  legates  and  quaestors. 

The  four  qusestiones  perpetuae  (from  144)  were — 1.  De  repetundia 
—concerning  extortion  ;  2,  cle  ambitu — obtaining  office  by  undue 
means ;  3,  de  majestate — treason  ;  4,  de  peculatu — peculation  of 
public  moneys. 

562  Administration  of  the  Provinces. 

a.  Meaning  of  the  term  "province." — A  province  comprehended, 
strictly  speaking,  only  those  cities  of  a  conquered  country  which  had 
been  reduced  to  the  condition  of  subject  and  tributary  states  ;  con- 
sequently, the  imperium  of  the  praetor  did  not  extend  to  those 
which  had  either  always  retained  their  independence  and  been  ad- 
mitted into  the  rank  of  allies,  or  which,  after  their  subjugation,  had 
been  restored  to  freedom,  or  had  received  extraordinary  privileges, 
such  as  exemption  from  taxes  and  other  burdens.  Colonies  were 
also  gradually  established  in  the  provinces ;  and  these,  whether 
Roman  or  Latin,  were  exempted  from  the  imperium  of  the  praetor. 
C  b.  Constitution  of  the  provincial  government. — As  a  general  rule, 
the  provinces  received,  immediately  after  their  subjugation,  a  form  of 
constitution  (forma)  from  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  or  through  a 
commission  of  ten  senators.  The  duty  of  the  provincial  governor 
was  threefold.  1.  The  executive  government;  2,  police  and  th? 
administration  of  justice  ;  3,  command  in- chief  of  the  garrisons 
establishe  1  in  the  country. 

c.  Taxation  in  the  provinces. — The  provincial  imposts  were  differ- 
ent in  different  provinces,  but  consisted  generally  of  a  poll-tax  and 
property-tax ;  the  latter  being  paid  partly  in  coin  and  partly  by  a 
tithe  of  the  produce.  This  tax  was  not  collected  immediately  by  the 
government,  but  farmed  out  to  private  speculators.  To  these  may 
be  added  money  paid  for  the  use  of  the  public  pastures,  duties,  taxes 
on  mines,  and  salt  works,  &c.  The  provincials  were  never  required 
to  serve  in  the  army,  except  in  cases  of  extraordinary  emergency. 
The  garrisons  were  always  sent  out  from  Rome. 

563  Relations  of  Rome  with  other  free  States. 

These  relations  were  based  on  treaties,  concluded  either  on  equal 
terms*  (aequo  foedere)  with  nations  previously  unconnected  with  the 
Romans,  or  which  had  made  a  successful  stand  against  them,  or  on 
unequal  terms  (foidere  iniquo)  with  weaker  states;  for  instance, 
with  Carthage,  after  the  first  and  second  Punic  ware.  Alliances 
were  also  concluded,  on  equal  or  unequal  terms,  with  foreign  sove- 
reigns, who  were  styled  the  friends  and  allies  of  the  Roman  people. 


564,  565.  §  132.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  267 

Attempts  were  made  to  check  the  progress  of  luxury  564 
and  the  increasing  adoption  of  foreign  manners,  by  the  A 
enactment  of  laws  (respecting  female  ornament,  the  ex- 
penditure at  feasts,  the  senatus  consultum  de  Bacchanali- 
bus),  and  by  severe  censors ;    among  whom  M.  Portius 
Cato  Censorius  was  the  most  conspicuous. 

(For  the  lex  annalis,  see  §  103.)      The  tribes  were  in- 
creased to  thirty- five. 

cc.  From  the  Gracchi  to  the  autocracy  of  Au- 
gustus, 133—30.  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Republic. 

Civil  and  Foreign  Wars. 

§  132.    The  two  Gracchi. 
(133—121.) 

The  population  of  Rome  consisted  at  this  period  of  the  565 
nobiles  (who  had  enriched  themselves  by  holding  lucrative  B 
offices  at  home  and  in  the  provinces),  and  an  indolent  and 
poverty-stricken  commonalty.  The  former  were  tenants 
of  the  whole  ager  publicus ;  and  the  free  peasantry,  ground 
down  by  military  service  and  compelled  by  absolute  want 
to  sell  their  birthright,  were  gradually  disappearing.  Under 
these  circumstances,  a  tribune  of  the  people,  named  Tibe- 
rius Sempronius  Gracchus,  revived  in  the  year  133 
an  obsolete  agrarian  law  of  Licinius,  by  which  it  was  enact- 
ed that  no  individual  should  hold  more  than  500  jugera  of 
ager  publicus.  Half  the  quantity  was  allowed  in  addition 
for  each  non-emancipated  son.  The  remainder  was  to  be  c 
restored  to  the  state  (a  reasonable  compensation  being 
made  for  buildings  erected  thereon),  and  to  be  divided  as 
a  fief  among  the  poorer  classes.  One  of  the  tribunes 
(M.  Octavius),  who  had  been  persuaded  by  the  senate  to 
interpose  his  veto,  having  been  removed  from  office,  the 
project  of  law  was  adopted  by  the  tribus,  and  three  com- 
missioners appointed  to  carry  out  its  provisions.  Attalus 
III.,  king  of  Pergamus,  who  had  bequeathed  his  king- 
dom to  the  Roman  people,  dying  about  the  same  time, 
Tiberius  proposed  that  his  treasures,  instead  of  being  in- 
trusted to  the  senate  for  distribution,  should  be  divided 
among  the  people,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  agricultural 
establishments  on  the  farms  about  to  be  assigned  to  them. 


268  EUROPE. — ROME.       [566,  567.  §  132. 

(565)  In  the  following  year,  Tiberius,  whose  re-election  was 
A  eagerly  desired  by  the  people,  was  assassinated,  with  300 
of  his  adherents,  by  the  senators,  at  the  instigation  of 
P.  Corn.  Scipio  Naslca  Serapio.  Under  color  of  an  em- 
bassy, Scipio  Nasica  was  banished  into  Asia,  where  Aris- 
tonlcus,  a  pretended  son  of  Eumenes,  who  was  endea- 
voring to  establish  his  claims  to  the  throne  of  Pergamus, 
was  overthrown  by  the  consul  Perperna.  Asia  Propria  a 
Roman  province. 

566  The  commissioners  for  carrying  out  the  agrarian  law  of  Gracchus, 
succeeded  at  length  in  effecting  a  partial  distribution  of  the  land. 
Scipio  Africanus  Minor,  the  leader  of  the  Optimates,  who  had  suc- 
cessfully resisted  the  proposal  of  Papirius  Carbo,  that  the  same  in- 
dividual should  be  permitted  to  hold  the  office  of  tribune  for  several 
successive  years,  was  soon  afterwards  found  dead  in  his  bed1  (129). 

567  Caius  Sempronius  Gracchus  (who  had  been  em- 
B  ployed  by  the  senate  for  three  years  as  quaestor  in  Sicily) 

revived,  as  tribune,  the  agrarian  law  of  his  brother,  with 
the  addition,  that  a  certain  number  of  estates  belonging  to 
the  republic  should  be  annually  divided  among  the  poor. 
By  this  and  similar  proposals,  Gracchus  secured  the  favor 
of  the  people,  and,  being  a  second  time  elected  tribune, 
obtained  the  passing  of  a  lex  judiciaria,  by  which  the  ju- 
dicial authority  was  transferred  from  the  senate  to  the 
knights ;  the  former  being  deemed  unfit  for  the  office  on 
account  of  the  partiality  which  they  had  displayed  towards 
c  their  own  order.  Another  candidate  for  popular  favor 
was  brought  forward  by  the  senate  in  the  person  of  the 
tribune,  M.  Livius  Drusus,  whose  efforts  to  outbid  his  rival 
were  aided  by  the  circumstance  of  C.  Gracchus  being  sent 
to  Carthage  to  establish  a  colony.  "  After  his  return, 
Gracchus  brought  forward  a  lex  de  suffragiis  sociorum, 
by  which  it  was  proposed  to  grant  the  full  privileges  of 
Roman  citizenship  to  the  Latins,  and  perhaps  the  right  of 
suffrage  to  all  the  Italian  allies ;  but  the  passing  of  this 
law  was  arrested  by  the  veto  of  Livius  Drusus.  In  the 
year  122,  Gracchus  and  3000  of  his  adherents  lost  their 
lives  in  a  brawl  with  the  aristocrats,  occasioned  by  the  as- 
sassination of  a  lictor.  (His  head  weighed  against  gold 
—a  temple  of  Concordia  built !) 

1  F.  D.  Gcrlach,  "  Historical  Sludieg"  [p.  201—254],  shows  that 
Scipio  was  murdered,  the  assassin  being  probaby  C.  Papirius  Carbo. 


568,  569.  §  133.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  269 

The  Optimates  availed  themselves  of  this  victory  over  the  com-  568 
mons  to  neutralize  the  agrarian  law  of  Gracchus,  by  allowing  the  ^ 
poor  to  sell  the  portions  of  land  allotted  to  them  ;  and  when  by  these 
means  the  rich  had  obtained  possession  of  all  the  landed  property, 
the  lex  Thoria  was  passed,  prohibiting  any  further  distribution  of 
the  ager  publicus.  The  pauper  citizens,  whose  numbers  were  greatly 
increased  by  this  measure,  were  now  supported  principally  by  bribes 
received  from  the  rich,  who  exercised  unlimited  control  over  the 
votes  given  by  their  dependents  at  the  comitia.  This  influence  was 
restricted  by  a  law  proposed  by  C.  Marius,  a  homo  novus  [cf.  559,  B], 
who  had  been  elected  tribune  ;  but  the  bribery  still  continued. 

§  133.   The  War  with  Jugurtha. 
(112—106.) 

Micipsa,  the  son  of  Masinissa,  had  divided  his  kingdom  569 
of  Numidia  between  his  sons  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal,  and  B 
his  adopted  son  Jugurtha.  In  the  year  116,  Jugurtha  put 
Hiempsal  to  death,  and  made  war  on  Adherbal,  who  ap- 
pealed to  the  Romans.  A  partition  of  the  kingdom  between 
Jugurtha  and  Adherbal  was  proposed  by  those  members  of 
the  senate  who  had  been  bribed  by  the  former ;  but 
Jugurtha,  in  defiance  of  this  intervention,  attacked  Ad- 
herbal, blockaded  him  in  his  capital,  Cirta,  took  him  pri- 
soner, and  put  him  to  death.  The  Romans  now  declared 
war  against  Jugurtha,  at  the  instance  of  C.  Memmius ; 
but  the  African  prince  purchased  terms  of  peace  from  the 
consul  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  (111),  which  Memmius  refused 
to  ratify.  Jugurtha  was  now  summoned  to  appear  at  c 
Rome,  where  he  assassinated  a  grandson  of  Masinissa 
(named  Massiva),  who  laid  claim  to  the  Numidian  empire 
as  heir  of  his  grandfather.  This  daring  act  produced  a 
renewal  of  the  war,  in  which  the  Romans  were  at  first 
unsuccessful,  until  the  appointment  to  the  chief  command 
of  Q.  Caeciiius  Metellus,  who  took  C.  Marius  with  him 
as  his  lieutenant ;  and,  rejecting  all  the  overtures  of  Ju- 
gurtha, overthrew  him  in  a  battle,  ravaged  his  dominions, 
and  compelled  him  to  fly  for  refuge  to  his  father-in-law 
Bocchus,  king  of  Mauritania.  Meanwhile,  the  intrigues  of  D 
Marius  at  Rome  had  obtained  for  him  the  consulate  and 
chief  command  of  the  army  in  Numidia.  He  overthrew 
the  two  kings  near  Cirta  (capite  censi  in  the  legions),  and 
his  qusestor,  L.  Cornelius  Sulla,  induced  Bocchus  to 
deliver  up  Jugurtha  (106),  who  was  exhibited  in  chains  in 
the  triumphal  procession  of  Marius,  and  then  starved  to 


270  EUROPE. — ROME.     [570 — 572.  §  134 — 136. 

A  death  in  prison.  Numidia  was  divided  between  Bocchus 
and  the  descendants  of  Masinissa. 

§  134.    War  with  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones. 
(113—101.) 

570  A  short  time  before  the  Jugurthine  war,  the  Cimbri,  a 
German  race,   had  wandered  from  their   home  (on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  ?)  as  far  as  Styria,  and  overthrown  a 
Roman  army  (under  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo)  near  Noreia. 
Thence  they  directed  their  march  westwards,  and  skirting 
the  northern  edge  of  the  Alps  reached  the  Rhine,  where 
they  united  their  forces  with  those  of  the  Teutdnes  (Tiguri- 
ni  and  Ambrones)  and  demanded  from  the  Romans  a  grant 

B  of  territory  in  Gaul.  This  being  refused,  they  attacked 
and  routed  three  Roman  armies  in  Gaul,  the  last  of  which 
is  reported  to  have  lost  120,000  men.  They  then  sepa- 
rated, and  were  cut  off  in  detail  by  C.  Mar i us,  who  held 
the  consulate  for  four  successive  years  (104 — 101).  The 
Teutdnes  (and  Ambrdnes)  were  defeated  near  Aquae 
Sextise  in  102,  and  their  leader  Teutoboch  taken ;  and 
the  Cimbri,  who  had  entered  Italy  from  Rhsetia,  and  de- 
feated the  consul  Catulus  on  the  Athesis,  were  overthrown 

c  near  Vercellae  (in  campis  Raudiis)  in  the  year  101.  The 
number  of  slain  and  prisoners  amounted  in  each  of  the 
battles  to  100,000.  Marius  was  rewarded  with  a  triumph, 
elected  consul  for  the  sixth  time  (100),  and  honored  with 
the  title  of  third  founder  of  the  city. 

$  135.   Second  Insurrection  of  the  Slaves  in  Sicily. 
(103—99.) 

571  The  Roman  praetor  in  Sicily  having  only  partially  car- 
D  ried'  into  effect  a  decree  of  the  senate,  by  which  freedom 

was  granted  to  those  persons  who  were  unjustly  detained 
in  slavery,  a  new  servile  war  broke  out,  which  seems  to 
have  cost  a  million  of  slaves  their  lives,  and  was  termi- 
nated, after  several  skirmishes,  by  a  decisive  battle. 

§  136.   To  the  Social  War. 
(100—91.) 

572  From  the  time  of  his  sixth  consulate,  Marius  had  been 
steadily  endeavoring    by  every  means  in  his   power  to 


573 — 575.  §  137.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  271 

undermine  the  influence  of  the  senate  and  place  himself  (579) 
at  the  head  of  affairs.  His  first  step  was  to  persuade  L.  A 
Apuleius  Sat  urn  in  us,  a  wretch  who  had  obtained  the 
tribunate  by  murder,  to  propose  a  distribution  of  land 
among  his  veterans  (chiefly  Italian  allies)  ;  the  senators 
being,  at  the  same  time,  warned  of  the  consequences  which 
would  follow  the  rejection  of  his  plan.  Q.  Metellus  Nu- 
midicus,  who  stood  alone  as  an  opponent  of  this  proposal, 
was  banished  to  Rhodes.  The  assassination  of  the  consul 
elect  (for  the  year  99),  C.  Memmius  (to  make  way  for 
Glaucia,  a  friend  of  Saturninus),  occasioned  an  insurrec- 
tion, in  which  both  lost  their  lives. 

There  was  now  a  cessation  of  domestic  feuds,  until  the  B 
breaking  out  of  a  civil  war  occasioned  by  the  jealousy 
between  M a  r  i  u  s  and  Sulla,  which  had  gone  on  ii.creasing 
since  the  conclusion  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  The  com- 
mencement of  actual  hostilities  was,  however,  deferred  in 
consequence  of  an  unexpected  quarrel  with  the  Italian 
confederates. 

Metellus  having  been  recalled  in  99,  Marius,  as  the  only  means  of  573 
sustaining  his  declining  influence,  travelled  into  Asia,  and  persuaded 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  to  make  war  on  the  Romans.  Mithri- 
dates  commenced  his  conquests  in  Asia  Minor  with  the  occupation  of 
Cappadocia,  from  which  he  was  expelled  by  Sulla,  at  that  time  pro- 
praetor in  Asia,  who  thus  became  unintentionally  a  rival  of  Marius. 


§  137.   The  Mar  sic  or  Social  War. 

(91—88.) 

Most  of  the  Italian  nations,  although  compelled  to  serve  574 
in  the  Roman  armies  and  pay  taxes,  were  excluded  from  c 
any  participation  in  the  government ;  the  admission  of  the 
Latins  to  the  full  rights  of  citizenship  and  of  the  other 
Italians  to  the  privilege  of  voting,  as  proposed  by  C.  Grac- 
chus, having  been  negatived  by  the  veto  of  M.  Livius 
Drusus.    His  son  and  namesake,  M.  Livius  Drusus,  having 
lost  his  life  in  a  fresh  attempt  to  obtain  these  concessions, 
Ihe  Italian  confederates  resolved  to  deliver  themselves  from 
he  Roman  yoke. 

Immediate  causes  of  the  War. — The  gross  acts  of  injustice  575 
perpetrated  in  the  provinces  by  the  knights,  as  farmers  of  the  public 
13 


272  EUROPE. — ROME.  [576.  §  137. 

(575)  revenue,  remaining  unpunished,  because  the  offenders  themselves 
A  were  the  judges,  an  attempt  was  made  by  M.  Livius  Drusus  to 
deprive  them  of  their  jurisdiction,  at  least  in  part,  by  admitting 
300  knights  into  the  senate,  and  then  choosing  the  judges  from  the 
whole  body  of  senators.  In  order  to  carry  out  this  plan,  Drusus 
urged  the  Italian  allies  to  exercise  their  influence  over  the  citizens 
of  Rome,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  their  votes  in  favor  of  his 
"  rogatio,"  promising  to  procure  for  them  in  return  the  political 
rights  which  they  were  so  anxious  to  obtain.  The  project  of  Drusus 
became  law  ;  but  when  he  went  on  to  propose  the  admission  of  the 
allies  to  the  rights  of  citizenship,  he  was  assassinated,  and  his  law 
repealed.  * 

576  All  the  Italian  nations,  with  the  exception  of  the  Latins, 
B  Etruscans,  and  Umbrians,  now  formed  themselves  into  a 
confederacy  against  Rome.  Their  plan  was  to  establish  a 
republic,  under  the  name  of  Italica,  with  the  city  of  Cor- 
finium  for  its  capital — the  government  to  be  in  the  hands 
of  a  senate  (consisting  of  500  deputies  from  all  the  states), 
two  consuls,  and  twelve  praetors.  The  Latins  and  some 
tribes  of  the  Etruscans  were  propitiated  by  a  grant  of 
Roman  citizenship,  made  to  them  at  the  commencement  of 
the  war  by  the  lex  Julia  (a  law  of  L.  Julius  Caesar).  The 
theatres  of  war  were  three.  1.  Northwards  in  Picenum, 
where  the  city  of  Asculum  (the  inhabitants  of  which  had 
commenced  hostilites  with  the  murder  of  a  praetor)  was 
c  taken  by  Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo.  2.  In  central  Italy,  in 
the  territories  of  the  four  united  cantons,  where  the  Romans 
were  for  the  most  part  unsuccessful,  except  against  the 
Marsians  (under  the  command  of  Marius).  Here  also  the 
war  was  terminated  by  Pompeius.  3.  In  the  south,  in 
Samnium  and  Campania,  where  Sulla  (libertini  in  the  le- 
gions) fought  with  distinguished  success.  As  the  war  with 
Mithridates  threatened  Rome  at  the  same  time,  the  rest  of 
the  Italians,  as  fast  as  they  submitted,  were  invested  (in 
accordance  with  the  lex  Plautia  Papiria)  with  the  privi- 
leges of  Roman  citizenship,  which  were  soon  afterwards 
D  conferred  on  all  the  municipia.  Lest,  however,  the  great 
numbers  of  the  new  citizens  should  give  them  a  prepon- 
derance over  the  old,  they  were  formed  into  eight  new 
tribes,  instead  of  being  incorporated  into  the  thirty-five 
which  already  existed. 


577,  578.  §  138.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  273 


§138.  Civil  War  between  Marius  and  Sulla,  88 — 82; 
and  first  War  against  Mithridates,  87 — 84. 

1.  The  civil  War  to  the  death  of  Marius  (88577 
—86). 

Sulla,  after  his  glorious  campaign  against  the  Italian  A 
confederates,  was  elected  consul,  and  received  Asia  as  his 
province,  with  the  command-in-chief  of  the  army  destined 
to  act  against  Mithridates.  On  the  other  hand,  Marius, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  the  tribune  P.  Sulpicius, 
who  was  supported  by  a  number  of  young  knights  (anti- 
senatus)  and  gladiators,  obtained  the  distribution  of  the 
freedmen  (who  had  hitherto  been  confined  to  the  four 
tribus  urbanse)  amongst  the  ancient  thirty-five  tribes,  and 
by  means  of  their  votes  procured  the  removal  of  Sulla, 
and  his  own  appointment  to  the  command-in-chief.  Ma-  B 
rius,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  these  proceedings,  at  once 
returned  to  Rome,  which  (after  a  skirmish  at  the  Esquiline 
gate)  was  stormed  for  the  first  time  by  Roman  legions. 
The  Sulpician  laws  were  immediately  repealed,  and  Sul- 
picius himself  put  to  death.  Marius,  after  various  adven- 
tures, reached  Minturnae  (attempt  to  assassinate  him),  and 
thence  passed  over  into  Africa.  Whilst,  however,  Sulla 
was  carrying  on  the  war  against  Mithridates,  one  Cinna, 
a  consul  of  the  popular  party,  whose  election  Sulla  had 
been  unable  to  prevent,  was  endeavoring  to  compel  the 
re-enactment  of  the  Sulpician  law,  and  procure  the  recall 
of  Marius,  through  the  votes  of  the  new  citizens.  He  c 
was,  it  is  true,  expelled  from  the  city  by  the  Optimates, 
but  succeeded  in  gaining  over  the  army,  which  was  still 
kept  on  foot  in  Campania  to  oppose  the  Italian  confederates, 
and  in  joining  Marius,  who  had  returned  from  Africa.  The 
.wo  leaders  then  invested  Rome,  which  was  compelled  by 
famine  to  open  its  gates ;  and  this  success  was  followed  by 
the  proscription  and  murder  of  Sulla's  friends,  not  only  at 
Rome,  but  throughout  Italy.  Cinna  and  Marius  nominated 
themselves  as  consuls  for  the  year  86 ;  but  Marius  died  at 
the'commencement  of  his  seventh  consulate,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  L.  Valerius  Flaccus. 

2.  First  War  against  Mithridates,  87 — 84.          578 
Mithridates,  availing  himself  of  the  confusion  occasioned 


274  EUROPE.— ROME.        [579,  580.  §  138. 

(578)  by  the  Social  war,  proceeded  to  carry  out  his  plans  for 
A  checking  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms  in  Asia,  by 
the  establishment  of  a  union  among  all  the  nations  of  the 
east.  His  first  step  towards  the  accomplishment  of  this 
mighty  project,  was  the  subjugation  of  Asia  Minor,  for 
which  an  occasion  was  furnished  by  disputes  respecting 
the  possession  of  Paphlagonia,  Galatia,  and  Cappadocia. 
Mithridates  then  sent  his  general  Archelaus  with  an  army 
and  a  fleet  into  Greece,  where  he  was  joined  by  most  of 
the  inhabitants.  In  order,  however,  to  prevent  his  arrival 
in  Italy  and  junction  with  the  Italian  confederates,  the 
Romans  put  an  end  to  the  war  at  home  by  various  conces- 
Bsions,  and  then  dispatched  Sulla  into  Greece.  After 
storming  Athens,  which  made  an  obstinate  resistance,  Sul- 
la quitted  the  exhausted  territory  of  Attica,  and  entering 
Boeotia  gained  two  brilliant  victories  at  Chaeronea  and 
Orchomenus.  The  Marian  party  at  Rome  now  assigned 
the  province  of  Asia  and  the  conduct  of  the  Mithridatic 
war  to  the  consul,  L.  Valerius  Flaccus,  who  was  murdered 
by  his  own  lieutenant,  Fimbria.  The  war  was  carried  on 
by  this  new  leader  with  such  success,  that  an  Asiatic  peace 
was  soon  afterwards  concluded  at  Dardanus,  on  the  fol- 
lowing terms — 

579  Mithridates  was  required  to  withdraw  his  garrisons  from  the  pro- 
c  vince  of  Asia  and  Paphlagonia,  to  evacuate  Bithynia  and  Cappadocia 

in  favor  of  Nicomedes  and  Ariobarzanes,  to  deliver  up  seventy  (or 
eighty  ?)  ships  of  war,  and  pay  2000  talents  as  an  indemnity  for  the 
expenses  incurred  by  the  Romans  in  carrying  on  the  war.  Sulla 
then  demanded  that  Fimbria  should  resign  the  command  of  the 
legions  to  him  as  the  legitimate  governor  of  Asia,  whereupon  Fimbria 
committed  suicide  ;  and  Sulla,  after  extorting  a  fine  of  20,000  talents 
from  the  revolted  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  returned  to  Rome.  Cinna, 
who  was  embarking  troops  at  Ancona,  in  order  to  dispute  his  land- 
ing, was  slain  by  his  own  soldiers. 

580  3.  Termination  of  the  civil  War. 

D  In  the  year  83,  Sulla,  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  army 
(40,000  strong),  landed  at  Brundusium,  and  having  re- 
ceived a  reinforcement  of  troops,  raised  for  his  service  by 
the  younger  Pompey  and  other  Optimates,  advanced  by 
slow  marches  as  far  as  Campania,  where  he  was  met  by 
the  united  armies  of  the  two  consuls.  Whole  squadrons 
of  the  consular  force,  including  the  entire  army  of  Scipio, 
were  induced  by  bribery  and  fair  promises  to  go  over  to 


581,  582.  §  138.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  273 

* 

the  enemy.  The  other  consul  (Norbanus)  was  left  dead  (580) 
on  the  field.  In  the  following  year  (82)  Sulla  overcame  A 
C.  Marius  (consul  of  that  year,  and  probably  a  son  of  the 
Marius  who  had  been  seven  times  consul),  and  having  left 
one  of  his  lieutenants  to  blockade  him  in  his  strong-hold 
of  Prseneste,  proceeded  to  Rome,  and  thence  into  Etruria, 
where  the  other  consul  (Cn.  Papirius  Carbo)  still  offered 
considerable  resistance,  which  the  continual  subdivision  of 
his  forces  compelled  him  at  last  to  abandon,  and  escape 
into  Africa.  The  Samnites  (who  had  never  laid  down 
their  arms  since  the  Social  war,  and  in  consequence 
had  not  been  admitted  to  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship), after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  relieve  Praeneste, 
advanced  to  Rome  with  the  intention  of  storming  and 
sacking  the  city,  but  were  completely  routed  before  the 
gates,  and  many  thousands  of  them  captured  and  put  to 
death.  Praeneste  was  also  taken  and  plundered,  the  Sam-  u 
nites  and  Prsenestines  proscribed  en  masse  without  any 
investigation,  and  Marius  himself  slain  by  a  slave  at  his 
own  request. 

The  numerous  proscriptions  at  Rome  as  well  as  through-  581 
out  the  whole  of  Italy,  of  persons  who  had  supported 
Marius,  afforded  Sulla  an  opportunity,  not  merely  of 
avenging  himself  on  his  enemies,  but  of  rewarding  also  his 
soldiers  and  supporters,  and  utterly  destroying  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  people.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  he 
caused  himself  to  be  nominated  Dictator  for  an  unlimited 
period,  and,  with  unrestricted  authority,  assumed  the  sur- 
name of  Felix,  and  celebrated  a  triumph  over  Mithridates, 
which  lasted  two  days.  At  the  end  of  two  years  he  so-  c 
lemnly  laid  down  the  dictatorship,  and  died  at  his  country 
house  near  Puteoli.  His  funeral  rites  were  celebrated 
with  great  pomp  by  his  adherents. 

Cn.  Pompeius,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war  in  Italy,  582 
in  which  he  had  taken  an  active  part,  undertook  the  anni- 
hilation of  the  Marian  party  in  Sicily,  Africa,  and  Spain. 

He  captured  and  put  to  death  the  consul  Carbo,  who  had  returned 
into  Sicily,  and  overthrew  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus  (Cinna's  son- 
in-law),  with  his  ally  Hiarbas,  king  of  Numidia.  On  his  return  he 
received,  probably  from  Sulla  himself,  the  surname  of  Magnus,  and 
celebrated  his  first  triumph  against  the  wishes  of  his  patron.  (For 
his  war  in  Spain,  see  §  140.) 


276  EUROPE.— ROME.  [583.  §139. 

§  139.   Changes  effected  in  the  Constitution  ly  Sulla. 
(82—79.) 

583      Instead  of  rendering  his  victory  and  the  sovereign  au- 

A  thority  with  which  he  was  invested  available  for  any  plans 
of  personal  ambition,  Sulla  directed  all  his  efforts  towards 
the  re-establishment  of  the  aristocracy.  1.  In  pursuance 
of  this  object,  he,  in  the  first  place,  deprived  all  the  cities 
belonging  to  the  opposite  party  (especially  in  Samnium, 
Lucania,  and  Etruria)  of  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and  con- 
fscated  their  lands,  which  he  bestowed  on  his  own  soldiers, 
with  the  view  of  securing  their  support  to  the  new  con- 
stitution. Thus  military  colonies  were  created  with  the 

B  full  rights  of  citizenship.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to 
secure  a  popular  party,  he  granted  liberty  and  political 
privileges  to  10,000  slaves  belonging  to  the  proscribed 
families.  These  new  citizens  were  named  after  their  patron 
Cornelii.  2.  The  tribunitial power,  which  had  degenerated 
into  licentiousness,  was  restrained  within  its  original 
bounds ;  the  tribunes  being  deprived  of  the  right  of  pro- 
posing laws  and  addressing  the  people,  as  well  as  of  be- 
coming candidates  for  the  higher  offices.  If  would  seem 
that  the  "  intercessio "  was  the  only  privilege  which  they 

c  were  allowed  to  retain.  3.  On  the  other  hand,  Sulla 
endeavored  to  raise  the  senate,  by  filling  up  the  number 
of  its  members  principally  from  the  equestrian  order 
(though  not  always  with  discretion),  and  restoring  to  it  the 
judicial  authority,  the  right  of  assigning  provinces,  and 
conferring  commands-in-chief,  as  well  as  of  previous  de- 
liberation on  questions  about  to  be  proposed  to  the  general 
assembly  of  the  people.  The  quaestors  were  declared  ex 
officio  members  of  the  senate ;  and,  in  order  to  render  the 
filling  up  of  the  senatorial  list  a  less  difficult  task  in  future, 

D  their  number  was  augmented  to  twenty.  4.  Another  plan 
adopted  by  Sulla  for  strengthening  the  aristocracy,  and 
especially  his  own  party,  was  by  increasing  the  number 
of  pontifices,  augurs,  and  guardians  of  the  Sibylline  books 
(which  had  been  restored  after  the  burning  of  the  Capitol) 
to  fifteen,  who  were  no  longer  to  be  chosen  by  the  people,  but 
elected  by  the  members  of  their  respective  colleges.  5.  In 
order  to  diminish  the  influence  of  the  people  in  the  courts 


584 — 586.  §  140.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  277 

of  justice,  and  at  the  same  time  to  increase  the  .power  of  (583) 
the  judges,  who  were  now  exclusively  men  of  senatorial  A 
dignity,  Sulla  added  two  new  courts  to  the  four  which 
already  existed, — an  arrangement  which  rendered  it  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  number  of  praetors  from  six  to  eight; 
but  it  is  not  distinctly  known  what  sort  of  questions  were 
decided  by  the  new  magistrates. 

The  order  in  which  the  higher  offices  might  be  held,  as  settled  by  584 
the  lex  annalis  (see  §  103),  was  again  defined,  and  the  acceptance  of 
the  same  office  a  second  time  within  ten  years  prohibited  as  before. 
Several  criminal  laws  were  also  re-enacted  by  Sulla,  and  rendered 
more  stringent  (lex  de  sicariis,  a  law  against  assassinations ;  de  falso, 
against  fraud ;  de  majestate,  defining  more  accurately  the  crime  of 
high  treason ;  lex  repetundarum,  lex  de  injuriis,  &c.)« 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Sulla,  the  repeal  of  all  585 
his  laws  was  proposed  by  the  consul  ^Emilius  Lepidus  ;  B 
but  this  could  only  be  effected  gradually,  on  account  of 
the  opposition  which  the  aristocracy  (under  Catulus  and 
Pompey  [Pompeius])  offered  to  such  a  measure.  The  first 
step  was  to  render  the  tribunes  eligible  to  the  higher  offices 
of  state.  Then  Pompey,  who  on  his  return  from  Spain  (see 
§  140)  had  abandoned  the  senatorial  party,  effected  the 
restoration  of  the  tribunitial  power  in  its  fullest  extent, 
and  procured  the  enactment  of  a  law  (the  lex  Aurelia),  by 
which  the  knights  were  declared  admissible  to  judicial 
offices.  Thus  he  became  the  man  of  the  people. 


§  140.   The  War  against  Sertorius. 
(80—72.) 

Q.  Sertorius,  who  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  586 
war  had  joined  the  party  opposed  to  the  nobles,  and  been  c 
rewarded  with  the  proprietorship  of  further  Spain,  having 
been  proscribed  by  Sulla  and  deprived  of  his  province, 
fled  to  Africa  (where  he  conquered  Mauritania).  The 
Lusitani,  who  at  that  great  distance  scarcely  recognized 
the  authority  of  Rome,  recalled  him  from  his  banishment, 
and  chose  him  as  their  leader  against  the  governors  ap- 
pointed by  Sulla  (81).  Thus  supported  by  the  Lusitani 
and  the  remnant  of  the  Marian  party,  Sertorius  made  head 
not  only  against  the  feeble  Q.  Metellus  Pius  (son  of 
Numidius),  but  against  Pompey  himself.  Mithridates, 


278  EUROPE.— ROME.     [587—589.  §  141,  142. 

(586)  who  observed  with  delight  that  the  Romans  were  becoming 
A  more  and  more  occupied  with  the  civil  war,  and  with  their 
enemies  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  now  concluded  an 
alliance  with  Sertorius,  who  was  soon  afterwards  assas- 
sinated at  a  banquet  at  the  instigation  of  his  own  lieutenant 
Perperna.  The  command  of  the  army  was  then  assumed 
by  Perperna,  who  was  defeated  by  Pompey  and  executed. 
This  victory  put  an  end  to  the  war ;  but  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans  over  Spain  was  not  yet  completely  re-estab 
lished. 

§  141.   The  Servile  War;  or  War  of  the  Gladiators  .ind 
Slaves. 

(73-71.) 

587  Some  gladiators,  principally  Thracians  and  Gauls,  who 
B  had  escaped  from  a  school  at  Capua,  placed  themselves 

under  the  command  of  a  Thracian  named  Spartacus, 
and  collected  an  enormous  band  of  gladiators  and  slaves, 
with  which  they  defeated  four  Roman  armies.  Spartacus 
would  have  quitted  Italy,  but  his  comrades,  who  thirsted 
for  booty  and  revenge,  determined  to  attack  Rome  itself. 
The  Romans,  panic-stricken,  as  they  had  been  at  the 
approach  of  Hannibal,  conferred  the  supreme  command, 
during  the  absence  of  Pompey,  on  the  praetor  M.  Licinius 
Crass  us,  who  put  an  end  to  the  war  by  two  decisive 
battles;  in  the  second  of  which,  on  the  Silarus,  Spartacus 
lost  his  life.  A  remnant  of  the  defeated  army  (5000  men) 
having  crossed  the  Alps,  fell  in  with  Pompey,  on  his  march 
homewards  from  Spain,  and  was  utterly  annihilated. 

588  On  his  return  to  Rome,  Pompey,  who  boasted  that  he  had  de- 
stroyed  every  vestige  of  the  servile  war,  obtained  a  triumph  (together 
with  Metellus  Pius),  on  account  of  his  victories  in  Spain,  and  was 
chosen  consul,  with  Crassus  for  his  colleague.     In  this  office  he  con- 
ciliated the  favor  of  the  people  by  restoring  the  tribunitial  power,  and 
abrogating  the  law  of  Sulla  concerning  the  administration  of  justice. 
(See  §  139,  ad  finem.)     After  his  consulship  he  did  not  accept  the 
command  of  a  province,  but  remained  at  Rome  till  the  chief  com- 
mand against  the  pirates  was  conferred  upon  him. 

§  142.    War  against  the  Pirates. 

(75—67.) 

589  Causes  of  their  power  in  Cilicia  and  Isauria. — 1 .  The 
oppression  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor  through  the 


590,  591.  §143.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  279 

avarice  of  the  Roman  governors,  farmers  of  the  revenue,  (589) 
and  usurers.  2.  Neglect  of  maritime  affairs  by  the  A 
Romans  since  the  destruction  of  Carthage.  During  his 
three  years'  government  in  Asia,  P.  Servilius  had  wrested 
from  them  several  towns  on  the  southern  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  subdued  Isaura  (hence  his  surname  of  Isauricus), 
and  settled  Cilicia  as  a  Roman  province  (75).  But  these 
losses,  so  far  from  weakening  the  freebooters,  merely 
served  to  augment  the  ferocity  with  which  they  carried  on 
their  system  of  robbery  and  murder.  From  Cilicia  and 
Crete  they  swept  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  with 
more  than  1000  vessels,  landed  on  the  coasts,  especially 
of  Italy,  plundered  the  cities  and  country  houses,  carried 
off  the  inhabitants  (Caesar  himself  fell  into  their  hands  at 
sea),  and  intercepted  the  remittances  of  money  and  cargoes 
of  grain.  The  famine  which  in  consequence  prevailed  at  B 
Rome  induced  the  people  (on  the  motion  of  the  tribune 
Gabinius)  to  confer  on  Cn.  Pornpeius  for  three  years  the 
uncontrolled  command  of  the  Mediterranean  and  its  coasts 
(67).  Pompey  surprised  the  pirates,  whom  he  chased 
from  one  haunt  to  another ;  and  in  two  short  campaigns  (of 
forty  and  forty-nine  days)  cleared  first  the  western  and 
then  the  eastern  Mediterranean  almost  without  a  battle, 
demolished  their  strongholds,  and  granted  to  those  who 
surrendered  cities  and  lands  in  Cilicia  (Pompseopolis,  an- 
ciently Soloe).  Crete,  one  of  the  principal  stations  of  the  c 
pirates,  after  a  three  years'  war,  surrendered  to  Q. 
Ca3cilius  Metellus  (thence  surnamed  Creticus),  and  be- 
came a  Roman  Province. 

§  143.   The  two  last  Wars  against  Mithridates. 

The  second  War  (83 — 81).  As  Mithridates,  after  the  con- 590 
elusion  of  peace,  still  continued  his  preparations,  and  refused  to  with- 
draw his  forces  entirely  from  Cappadocia,  Murana,  propraetor  of 
Asia,  established  garrisons  in  that  country,  and  made  predatory 
excursions  into  the  Pontic  territory ;  but  being  overthrown  at  the 
river  Halys,  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  Cappadocia. 

The  third  War  (74— 64), began  when  NicomedesIII.,  591 
king  of  Bithynia,  and  brother-in-law  of  Mithridates,  be-  D 
queathed  his  dominions  to  the  Romans,  who  formed  them 
into  a  new  province.     Mithridates  now  concluded  an  alli- 
ance with  Sertorius,  and  sent  a  force  into  Bithynia,  which 
13* 


280  EUROPE.— ROME.  [592.    $  143, 

(591)  overthrew  the  consul  Aurelius  Cotta  by  water  as  well  as 

A  by  land  near  Chalcedon,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  of 
Cyzicum,  on  the  island  Cyzicus,  which  had  remained  faith- 
ful to  the  Romans.  The  place  was  relieved  by  the  other 
consul  L.  Licinius  Lucullus,  who  advanced  in  pursuit  of 
the  king  as  far  as  Pontus,  and  after  a  succession  of  fresh 
victories  compelled  him  to  fly  for  refuge  to  his  son-in-law 
Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia.  This  monarch  having  refused 
to  deliver  up  his  father-in-law,  Lucullus  crossed  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  overthrew  the  army  of  Tigranes, 
which  was  20  (?)  times  as  numerous  as  his  own,  near 
Tigranocerta  (69),  and  both  the  sovereigns  at  Artaxata 

B  (68).  The  refusal  however  of  his  soldiers  (who  were 
seldom  allowed  to  pillage)  to  advance  any  further  into 
those  inhospitable  regions,  prevented  him  from  profiting 
by  his  victories,  and  Mithridates  with  little  labor  re- 
conquered  his  dominions.  Heavy  charges  being  at  the 
same  time  brought  against  Lucullus  by  the  Roman  knights 
in  Asia,  whose  avarice  he  had  endeavored  to  repress,  the 
entire  direction  of  the  war  against  the  two  kings  was  com- 
mitted by  the  people  to  Cn.  Pompeius  Magnus  (who 
had  unexpectedly  put  an  end  to  the  piratical  war  and  was 
still  in  Asia)  agreeably  to  the  lex  Manilia,  which  was 

c  supported  by  the  eloquence  of  Cicero.  After  a  battle  by 
night,  in  which  he  was  defeated,  Mithridates  fled  to 
Colchis,  and  Tigranes,  who  had  surrendered  without 
striking  a  blow,  was  allowed  by  Pompey  to  retain  a  por- 
tion of  his  dominions  as  a  barrier  against  the  Parthians, 
surrendering  Syria,  Phoenicia,  the  Lesser  Armenia,  and 
parts  of  Cilicia,  Galatia,  and  Cappadocia.  After  following 
Mithridates  as  far  as  the  river  Phasis,  Pompey  gave  up 
the  pursuit,  and  turned  his  arms  against  the  nations  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Arabian 
and  Persian  gulfs. 

D  On  his  return  he  introduced  the  Roman  provincial 
administration  into  Pontus,  marched  into  Syria,  which  he 
proclaimed  a  Roman  province,  and  in  Palestine  restored 
the  high  priest  Hyrcanus  (who  had  been  deposed  by  his 
brother  AristobOlus),  and  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Roman  government. 

592      Having  received  intelligence  that  Mithridates  had  destroyed  him- 
•elf  (at  Panticapeeum  on  the  Tauric  Chersonesus)  in  a  fit  of  despair 


593.  §  144.]         EUROPE. —  ROME.  281 

occasioned  by  the  treason  of  his  son  Pharnaces,  Pompey  re-entered  (592) 
Pontus,  and    having   confirmed    Pharnaces    in    the    sovereignty  of  j^ 
Bosporus,  and  re-arranged  the  constitution  of  the  Asiatic  provinces, 
returned  to  Rome,  where  his  second  triumph,  which  lasted  two  days, 
was  celebrated  with  unprecedented  magnificence  (61). 


§  144.   Catiline's  Conspiracy. 
(66-62.) 

A  conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  consuls  elect  was  set  on  593 
foot  by  L.  Sergius  Catilina  (an  accomplice  of  Sulla  in 
his  murderous  proscription),  who  had  been  rejected  as  a 
candidate  for  the  consulship  on  account  of  certain  charges 
brought  against  him  of  extortion  practised  during  his  pro- 
prsetorship  in  Africa.  His  project  having  miscarried 
through  the  indecision  of  the  conspirators  (young  and 
ambitious  Romans,  and  bad  characters  of  every  descrip- 
tion), Catiline  was  brought  to  trial,  and  being  acquitted, 
became  a  candidate  for  the  consulship,  which  however  was 
conferred  (in  63) on  M.  Tullius  Cicero1  and  C.  Anto- 
nius  (a  friend  of  Catiline).  In  consequence  of  this  dis-  B 
appointment  Catiline  renewed  his  conspiracy,  and  endea- 
vored to  increase  the  number  of  his  adherents,  in  order 
to  secure  his  election  for  the  year  62.  Cicero,  to  whom 
Catiline's  intention  of  assassinating  him  during  the  election, 
and  then  seizing  on  the  consulship,  had  been  communi- 
cated by  one  of  the  conspirators  (Curius),  through  the 
intervention  of  Fulvia,  appeared  at  the  comitia  with  such 
an  escort,  as  rendered  an  attack  impossible  (Silanus  and 
Murena  were  chosen  consuls  for  62).  All  further 
attempts  of  the  conspirators  were  rendered  fruitless  by  the 
vigilance  of  Cicero,  whose  eloquent  denunciations  drove 
Catiline  from  the  city.  He  then  joined  one  of  his  fellow-  c 
conspirators,  Manlius,  who  had  raised  an  army  in  Etruria. 
Both  were  immediately  proscribed,  and  five  of  the  con- 
spirators at  Rome  (who  had  been  discovered  through  their 
correspondence  with  the  ambassadors  of  the  Allobroges) 
were  executed  in  prison  (speeches  of  Cicero  and  Cato  in 
opposition  to  Caesar  ;  Cicero  pater  patrise).  The  army  of 

1  Born  at  Arplnum  in  106,  fought  under  Sulla  in  the  war  of  the 
confederates,  travelled  to  Athens  and  Asia  Minor.  Quaestor  in  Sicily 
in  76,  impeached  Verres  in  70,  aedilis  curulis  in  69,  praetor  urbanus 
66,  declined  the  administration  of  a  province  aa  propraetor. 


282  EUROPE.— ROME.     [594—596.  §  145. 

Etruria    was    routed    by   M.  Petreius,    lieutenant    of  C. 
Antonius,  near  Pistoria"(62),  where  Catiline  himself  fell. 


§  145.   The  First  Triumvirate,  60. 

594  C.  Julius  Caesar,1  whose  acute  mind  had  long  since  dis- 
A  covered  that  the  republic  was  in  its  dotage,  resolved  to 

overthrow  the  power  of  the  nobility  through  the  people 
and  their  idol  Pompey,  and  then  reign  triumphantly  over 
both  parties. 

595  This  plan  he  followed  out  with  unwearied  perseverance,  but  with 
such  moderation  and  prudence,  that  for  a  long  time  his  object  was 
not  suspected.     He  became  a  supporter  of  all  measures  calculated  to 
undermine  the  influence  of  the  nobility  (such  as  the  restoration  of  the 
tribunitial  power,  and  the  partition  of  the  judicial  functions),  attached 
himself  to  Pompey,  as  soon  as  that  general  abandoned  the  party  of 
the  senate,  and  endeavored  by  every  means  in  his  power  to  render 
himself  popular  and  the  nobility  odious.     This  systematic  resistance 
to  the  dominant  party  subjected  him  to  the  suspicion  of  being  con- 
cerned in  Catiline's  conspiracy,  especially  as  he  spoke  against  the 
infliction  of  capital  punishment  on  the  conspirators. 

596  On  his  return  to  Rome,  Pompey  demanded  the  con- 
B  firmation  of  all  the  measures  which  he  had  adopted  in 

Asia,  and  a  distribution  of  lands  among  his  veterans :  but 
both  these  proposals  were  vehemently  resisted  in  the 
senate.  About  the  same  time  Caesar  returned  from 
further  Spain,  which  he  had  governed  as  propraetor,  and 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Opli mates,  was 
chosen  consul  for  the  year  59,  but  with  Bibulus,  a  violent 
aristocrat,  for  his  colleague.  A  reconciliation  having  been 
effected  between  Pompey  and  Crassus,  through  the  inter- 
vention  of  Caesar,  the  three  entered  into  a  compact  to  op- 
c  pose  the  aristocracy.  This  "  union  of  talent  with  reputation 
and  wealth,  by  means  of  which  the  one  party  hoped  to 
rise,  the  other  to  retain,  and  the  third  to  win,"  is  called 
the  first  Triumvirate.  Caesar  now,  in  defiance  of  all 

1  Born  on  the  12  Quinctilis  100  ;  as  son-in-law  of  Cmna,  an 
opponent  of  Sulla,  by  whom  he  was  proscribed  but  afterwards  par- 
doned. He  served  in  Asia  and  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  pirates ; 
was  quaestor  in  Spain,  pontifex  maximus  in  63,  praetor  62,  propraetor 
in  Lusitania  in  61,  after  Crassus  had  become  security  for  his  debts 
(830  talents). 


597,  598.  §  146.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  283 

opposition  from  the  senate,  obtained  from  the  people  the  (596) 
assignment  of  lands  in  Campania  to  20,000  citizens,  prin-  A 
cipally  veterans  of  Pompey's  army,  gave  his  only  daughter 
Julia  in  marriage  to  Pompey,  and  procured  his  own 
nomination  to  the  propraetorship  for  five  years  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul  and  lllyricum.  This  last  usurpation  of  their  rights 
by  the  people  occasioned  such  alarm  to  the  senate,  that 
they  resolved  to  anticipate  further  encroachments  by  as- 
signing to  Caesar  in  addition  the  still  more  important  pro- 
vince of  Transalpine  Gaul.  Before  he  set  out  for  his  pro- 
vince, Caesar  contrived  (by  means  of  the  tribune  P. 
Clodius)  to  withdraw  from  Rome  the  two  leaders  of  the 
senate,  M.  Porcius  Cato  and  Cicero.  The  former  was  B 
sent  to  Cyprus,  with  a  commission  to  reduce  the  island, 
without  a  show  of  justice,  to  the  condition  of  a  Roman 
province.  Cicero,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  gain 
over  Caesar,  was  banished  to  Thessalonica  (58),  in  conse- 
quence of  a  charge  brought  against  him  by  Clodius  of 
having  occasioned  the  execution  of  Catiline's  conspirators. 
From  this  exile,  however,  he  was  recalled  at  the  end  of 
sixteen  month's  (on  the  motion  of  the  tribune,  T.  Annius 
Milo),  to  support  Pompey  and  the  senate  against  Clodius. 

In  the  year  56  the   triumviri  held  a  meeting  in  Caesar's  winter  597 
quarters  at  Luca,  at  which  it  was  agreed  that  Pompey  and  Crassus  c 
should  be  the  consuls  of  the  following  year,  and  be    appointed  to 
provinces  and  the  command  of  armies,  Caesar  not  only  consenting  to 
such  an  arrangement,  but  pledging  himself  to  use  all  his  influence 
with  the  people  that  it  might  be  carried  into  effect.     In  return  for 
these  concessions,  Cesar's  Colleagues  insured  him  the  prolongation 
of  his  government  for  five  years  ;  and  Pompey,  who  anticipated  im- 
portant advantages  from  his  own  residence  at  Rome,  continued  to 
supply  him  with  fresh  legions. 


§  146.  Casar's  War  in  Gaul 
(58—51.) 

The  object  of  Csesar  in  carrying  on  the  Gallic  war,  was  598 
not  merely  the  extension  of  the  Roman  dominions,  but  the  D 
more  important  advantage  of  keeping  together  a  body  of 
veterans,  attached  to  his  person,  and  ready  at  all  times  to 
render  him  unconditional  obedience.      With  this  view  he 
formed  a  regular  standing  army. 


284  EUROPE. — ROME.     [599—602.  $  146. 

599  Gaul,  like    Spain,  was  peopled  by  a   multitude  of  small   clans, 
A  which,  instead  of  uniting  against  Rome,  continued  to  prosecute  their 

own  petty  feuds.  This  circumstance,  joined  to  their  superiority  in 
the  art  of  war,  rendered  the  struggle  comparatively  easy  for  the 
Romans ;  but  at  the  same  time  prolonged  the  war,  which,  instead  of 
being  terminated,  as  in  the  east,  by  one  or  two  decisive  engagements, 
qould  only  be  decided  by  the  subjugation  of  the  tribes  one  after  an- 
other and  by  means  of  each  other,  and  by  the  suppression  of  repeated 
insurrection*. 

600  In  the  year  58  the  Helvetii,  who  had  migrated  from 
B  eastern  Gaul  in  search  of  a  better  settlement,  threatened 

the  Roman  province  and  plundered  the  territories  of  the 
-<Edui.  These  applied  for  assistance  to  Caesar,  who  over- 
threw the  Helvetians,  cutting  some  to  pieces  and  driving  the 
rest  back  into  their  own  country.  At  an  earlier  period  the 
Arverni  in  a  war  with  the  JSdui  had  taken  into  their  pay  a 
German  army  commanded  by  Ariovistus.  The  ^Eduans 
applied  to  Caesar  for  protection ;  and  the  Germans,  after 
sustaining  a  defeat  at  Vesontio  (Besan9on),  were  com- 
pelled to  recross  the  Rhine. 

c  In  57  the  Belgians,  who  had  the  reputation  of  being 
the  bravest  nation  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Pyrenees, 
prepared  to  resist  the  advance  of  the  Romans,  by  a  levte 
en  masse  of  300,000  men.  This  force  was  separated  by 
Caesar,  who  pursued  the  different  divisions  and  overcame 
them  in  detail.  The  most  obstinate  combat  was  with  the 
warlike  Nervii  (between  the  Schelde  and  Sambre),  and 
their  neighbors  ;  but  even  here  the  superiority  of  their 
discipline  insured  victory  to  the  Romans. 

601  In   the   year   56   the  Vengti    on   the   north-western   coast  were 
D  vanquished  by  a   sudden   attack  (by  Decimus  Brutus),  their  chief 

men  executed,  and  the  rest  sold  as  slaves,  whilst  the  Aquitani,  in 
south-western  Gaul,  were  subjugated  by  the  younger  Crassus  (son  of 
the  triumvir).  Thus  the  conquest  of  Gaul  was  accomplished,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  tribes  on  the  Belgic  coast  and  at  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees. 

602  In  55  the  Usipetes  and  Tenchteri,  who  had  been 
driven  by  the  Suevi  across  the  Lower  Rhine  into  Belgium, 
were  compelled  to  return  by  Caesar,  who  now,  in  order  to 
find  employment   for   his   legions,  not  only  crossed   the 
Rhine  into  the  territory  of  the  Sicambri,  but  even  visited 
Britain,  without  however  making  any  conquest  in  either  of 
those  countries.     His  second  expedition  to  Britain  (in  54), 


603,  604.  §  147.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  285 

with  800  ships,  and  a  second  campaign  in  Germany  (in 
53),  had  no  better  results. 

In  the  years  54 — 51  the  Gauls,  who,  in  addition  to  the  603 
loss  of  their  freedom,  were  grievously  oppressed  by  taxa-  A 
tion,  the  winter  quartering  of  troops,  and  pillage  of  their 
estates,  made  repeated  attempts  to  throw  off  the  Roman 
yoke.  A  combined  insurrection  of  the  Treveri  and 
Eburones,  under  the  crafty  Ambiorix,  having  failed,  the 
whole  nation  of  the  Gauls  rose  as  one  man, 
under  the  command  of  Vercingetdrix  (an  Arvernian),  by 
whom  the  war  was  carried  on  with  great  circumspection 
and  patience.  Their  leader  being  besieged  by  Caesar  in 
the  fortress  of  Alesia,  the  united  army  of  the  Gauls  (about 
250,000  strong)  appeared  before  the  place,  but  were 
utterly  defeated  ;  whereupon  Vercingetorix  surrendered  to 
the  Romans.  A  few  Gallic  tribes  still  resisted,  but  were  B 
overcome  in  the  year  51.  As  the  conclusion  of  his  five 
years'  government  drew  near,  Caesar,  by  means  of  gentle 
treatment,  conferring  honors  on  their  chiefs,  and  main- 
taining their  laws  and  constitutions,  succeeded  in  tran- 
quillizing the  Gauls,  and  thus  securing  his  conquest. 


§  147.   The  Civil  War  between  Casar  and  Pompey. 

(49_48.) 

Pompey  and  Crassus  had  been  a  second  time  elected  to  604 
the  consulship  (55),  and  obtained  the  provinces  which  they  c 
desired,  viz.  Crassus  Syria,  where  he  was  slain  in  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Parthians,  and  Pompey  the  two  Spains, 
the  government  of  which  he  intrusted  to  a  lieutenant,  and 
remained  at  Rome  in  the  expectation  that  the  disturbed 
times  would  require  his  appointment  to  the  dictatorship. 
With  this  object  in  view,  he  caused  the  election  of  consuls 
for  the  year  52  to  be  deferred,  under  the  pretext  that  the 
auspices  were  unfavorable,  and  by  fostering  intestine  dis- 
turbances (assassination  of  Clodius  by  Milo),  succeeded 
in  obtaining  his  own  appointment  to  the  consulship  (with- 
out a  colleague),  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  them. 
The  Optimates  were  so  besotted  as  to  suppose  that  it 
would  be  possible  to  disarm  Caesar  by  an  act  of  the  senate, 
or  at  all  events  by  means  of  Pompey 's  army. 


286  EUROPE. — ROME.     [605—607.  §  147. 

605  Their  first  step  was  to  withdraw  from  him  two  legions  under  pre- 
A  tence  of  their  being  required  for  the  Parthian  war ;  but  they  were 

still  retained  in  Italy  under  the  command  of  his  rival.  Then  he  was 
required,  before  the  expiration  of  his  second  five  years,  to  resign  his 
command  and  retire  from  the  provinces.  Caesar  having  offered  to 
do  this,  if  Pompey  would  follow  his  example,  the  senate  pronounced 
him  contumacious,  and  notwithstanding  the  veto  of  two  tribunes, 
resolved  to  proscribe  him  as  an  enemy  of  the  republic,  unless  he  con- 
sented to  resign  the  command  of  his  army,  which  consisted  of  eleven 
legions. 

606  Irritated  by  these  and  similar  insults,  Caesar  determined 
B  to  cross  the  Rubicon  (the  boundary  of  his  Cisalpine  pro- 
vince), before  the  forces  of  Pompey  could  be  brought  into 
the  field.     Pompey,  accompanied  by  the  iwo  consuls  and 
a  majority  of  the  senate,  fled  to  Brundusium,  and  being 
closely    pursued   by  Caesar,  crossed   over   into   Greece. 
Meanwhile,  Caesar,  who,  within  two  months  had  become 
almost  without  opposition  master  of    Italy,   Sicily,    and 
Sardinia,  employed  the  time  which  must  elapse  before  a 
fleet  could  be  built   for  the   transport   of  his  troops  to 
Greece,  in  visiting  Spain,  where  the  lieutenants  of  Pompey 

c  submitted  without  a  battle.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  was 
appointed  dictator  by  a  senate  composed  of  his  own 
friends,  and  having  laid  down  this  dignity  at  the  end  of 
eleven  days,  was  a  second  time  chosen  consul ;  whilst  on 
the  other  hand  the  senators  who  had  fled  with  Pompey 
re-elected  the  officers  of  the  past  year. 

During  these  proceedings,  Caesar's  lieutenant,  Curio,  had  subdued 
Sicily,  but  lost  his  life  in  an  engagement  with  Juba,  king  of  Numidia, 
who  supported  the  party  of  Pompey,  because  Curio,  as  tribune,  had 
proposed  the  annexation  of  Numidia  to  the  Roman  dominions. 

607  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  48,  Caesar  landed  in  southern 
D  Illyria,  and  cut  Pompey  off*  from  Dyrrachium,  his  chief 

arsenal,  but  was  repulsed  in  the  first  encounter.  Instead, 
however,  of  pursuing  and  cutting  to  pieces  the  scattered 
forces  of  his  enemy,  Pompey  persisted  in  his  plan  of 
starving  him  into  surrender ;  until  at  length,  on  the  ninth 
of  August,  48,  Caesar,  by  a  feigned  flight,  brought  on  the 
decisive  battle  of  Pharsalus,  in  which  his  admirable 
tactics  gained  him  a  complete  victory  over  the  Optimates, 
whose  army  consisted  of  52,000  men,  whilst  his  own  num- 
bered only  23,000.  By  the  advice  of  one  of  his  favorites, 


608 — 610.  §  148.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  287 

Pompey  sought  an    asylum    at  the  court  of  Ptolemaeus  (607) 
Dionysus,  king  of  Egypt,  whose  father  had  been  indebted  A 
to  him  for  the  restoration  of  his  crown  ;  but  the  intrigues 
of  the  Egyptian  courtiers  soon  occasioned  his  assassination. 
A  few  days  after  his  death  Caesar  appeared  before  Alex- 
andria, and  bewailed  the  fate  of  his  son-in-law. 

When  Caesar  quitted  Greece,  in  pursuit  of  Pompey,  he  had  de-  608 
spatched  M.  Antonius  with  a  portion  of  his  army  into  Italy,  to  secure 
that  country,  and  obtain  for  his  patron  the  sovereign  power,  under  a 
title  recognized  by  the  constitution.  So  well  did  Antony  discharge 
the  duty  intrusted  to  him,  that  Caesar  was  not  ohly^lected  dictator 
for  a  year,  but  also  invested  with  the  tribunitial  authority  for  life,  and 
the  power  of  making  war  and  concluding  peace,  and  of  nominating 
the  provincial  governors. 


§  148.   Casar's  Wars  in  the  East. 

(48—47.) 

1.  The  Alexandrian  War,  48  and  47.  609 
On  his  arrival  in  Egypt,  Caesar  found  the  country  dis-  B 

tracted  by  disputes  between  Ptolemseus  Dionysus  and  his 
sister  Cleopatra,  who  were  required  by  their  father's  will 
to  marry  one  another,  and  reign  conjointly.  Cleopatra, 
being  expelled  by  her  brother,  applied  for  aid  to  Caesar, 
who  was  so  captivated  by  her  charms  that  he  at  once  pro- 
posed to  act  as  arbitrator.  A  general  insurrection  in 
Alexandria  was  the  consequence  of  this  interference. 
Caesar  intrenched  himself  in  Bruchium  (the  quarter  ad- 
joining the  port),  burnt  the  Egyptian  fleet  in  harbor 
(destruction  of  the  largest  of  the  three  Alexandrian  libra- 
ries), with  the  aid  of  a  reinforcement  from  Asia  overthrew 
Ptolemy  (who  was  drowned  in  the  Nile  in  attempting  to 
escape),  and  placed  the  crown  on  the  heads  of  Cleopatra 
and  her  younger  brother. 

2.  The  War  against  Pharnaces,  47.  610 
Pharnaces,  the  son  of  Mithridates,  availed  himself  of  the  c 

disruption  of  the  Roman  republic  to  extend  the  limits  of 
his  little  empire  on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus.  He  had 
already  occupied  the  lesser  Armenia  and  Cappadocia 
(countries  which  at  an  earlier  period  had  been  governed 
by  the  Romans),  overthrown  Caesar's  lieutenant,  Domitius 
Calvinus,  whose  defeat  enabled  him  to  take  possession  of 
the  whole  northern  coast  of  Asia  Minor),  and  was  on  the 


288  EUROPE.— ROME.     [611—613.  §149. 

(610)  point  of  returning  to  quell  an  insurrection  of  his  lieutenant 
A  on  the  Bosporus,  when  he  was  overtaken  by  Caesar,  who 
after  a  campaign  of  only  five  days  (hence  "  veni,  vidi, 
vici")  compelled  him  to  retreat  in  disorder  to  the  Bos- 
porus, where  he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  his  lieutenant. 


§  149.  Casar's  last  Wars  against  the  Partisans  of  Pompey. 
(46-^5.) 

611      1.  The  War  in  Africa,  46. 

B  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  47,  Caesar  landed  in  Africa, 
where  Pompey's  son  Sextus,  his  father-in-law  Metellus 
Scipio,  Cato,  Petreius,  and  other  Optimates,  had  assembled 
after  the  death  of  their  leader,  and  formed  a  league  with 
Juba,  king  of  Numidia.  Csesar  overthrew  the  united  army 
of  :he  republicans  and  Numidians  at  Thapsus  (where 
the  allies  lost  50,000  men  and  Caesar  only  fifty),  took 
Utica,  the  chief  residence  of  the  Optimates,  and  made 
Numidia  a  Roman  province.  Cato  died  by  his  own  hand; 
and  his  example  was  followed  by  Juba,  Scipio,  and  Pe- 
treus :  the  rest  (S.  Pompeius,  Labienus,  &c.)  escaped  into 
Spain,  and  joined  Cn.  Pompeius. 

gj2  After  the  conclusion  of  the  African  war,  new  and  unprecedented 
honors  were  heaped  on  CcEsar.  A  solemn  thanksgiving  was  ordered 
C  for  forty  days,  and  a  statue  erected  of  the  conqueror,  who  was  in- 
vested with  the  dictatorship  for  ten  years,  and  the  censorship,  with- 
out colleagues,  for  three,  with  the  modest  title  of  prafectus  moribus. 
Triumphs  were  celebrated  on  three  several  days  for  his  victories  in 
Gaul,  Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa :  the  people  were  feasted  at  22,000 
triclinia,  presented  with  doles  of  money,  corn,  and  oil,  and  gratified 
with  public  spectacles  ;  whilst  the  soldiers  were  rewarded  with  grants 
of  money  and  land.  Caesar  then  took  measures  for  the  restoration 
of  order,  by  means  of  sumptuary  laws  and  enactments,  against  vio- 
lence and  treason ;  limited  the  duration  of  provincial  governments, 
and  increased  the  number  of  the  senators.  As  pontifex  maximus, 
he  undertook  a  reformation  of  the  calendar,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  the  Alexandrian  mathematician  SosigSnes  (see  §  4.)  Great 
offence  was  caused  by  the  arrival  of  Cleopatra  at  Rome,  and  by  her 
haughty  behavior. 

613      2.  The   War   against  the   sons  of  Pompey  in 
D  S  p  a  i  n,  45. 

The  last  campaign  of  Caesar  was  against  the  sons  of 
Pompey  (Cnaeus  and  Sextus),  who,  after  the  battle  of 
Thapsus,  had  collected  a  considerable  force  in  Spain.  By 


614.  §  150.]         EUROPE. — ROME,  289 

the  most  extraordinary  exertions,  he  was  enabled  to  win  (613) 
thebattleof  Mundain  Baetica,  where  33,000  of  Pom-  A 
pey's  adherents  were  slain.     Cn.  Pompey,  who  attempted 
to  fly,  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror  and 
put  to  death :    Sextus  escaped  into  north-eastern  Spain. 
On  his  return  to  Rome,  Caesar  celebrated  his  fifth  triumph, 
and  was  honored  with  a  festival  of  thanksgiving,  which 
lasted  fifty  days. 


§  150.  Death  of  Casar. 

The  senate,  dazzled  by  the  brilliancy  of  Caesar's  exploits,  614 
and  eagerly  flattering  him  from  motives  of  fear  or  self-  B 
interest,  outstripped  the  dictator  himself  in  the  revolu- 
tionary race.  In  addition  to  the  other  honors,  some  of 
them  almost  divine,  which  were  heaped  upon  him,  they 
voted  him  the  dictatorship,  the  prsefectura  morum,  and  title 
of  Imperator  for  life,  invested  him  with  the  consulship  for 
ten  years,  gave  him  the  entire  control  over  the  army  and 
the  exchequer,  named  him  father  of  his  country,  altered 
the  title  of  the  month  in  which  he  was  born  from  Quintilis 
to  Julius,  and  proclaimed  their  recognition  of  his  supremacy 
by  granting  him  authority  to  coin  money  with  his  own 
effigy.  During  the  last  months  of  his  life,  the  giant  mind  c 
of  Julius  Caesar  was  occupied  with  plans  for  erecting 
public  buildings,  framing  a  code  of  laws,  and  establishing 
public  libraries  ;  and,  more  than  all,  with  preparations  for 
an  invasion  of  Parthia  to  avenge  the  fall  of  Crassus.  His 
intention  was  first  to  subdue  the  Dacians  on  the  banks  of 
the  Danube,  and  the  Getae ;  and  then  marching  onwards 
into  Asia,  and  conquering  the  Parthians,  to  traverse  the 
countries  on  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas,  and  return  to 
Rome  through  Germany  and  Gaul ;  thus  extending  his 
dominions  on  all  sides,  as  men  believed,  to  the  very  shores 
of  the  ocean.  No  important  steps  had,  however,  yet  been  D 
taken  for  the  permanent  organization  of  this  absolute 
power.  His  friends  had  made  several  ineffectual  attempts 
to  present  him  publicly  with  a  diadem,  which  he  was  com- 
pelled on  each  occasion  to  refuse,  because  the  offer  was 
unconfirmed  by  the  people.  At  length,  they  discovered  in 
the  Sibylline  books  (which  had  been  burnt  in  Sulla's  time, 
and  replaced  in  part  by  forged  documents)  a  prophecy  to 


290  EUROPE.— ROME.        [615,  616.    §  151. 

(614)  this  effect — "  that  Parthia  could  only  be  subdued  by  the 
A  Romans  under  a  KING" — and  immediately  demanded  that 
their  leader  should  be  invested  with  sovereign  authority 
beyond  the  limits  of  Italy.  Meanwhile  a  conspiracy  to 
assassinate  Caesar  was  organized  by  sixty  Optimates,  partly 
adherents  of  Pompey,  and  partly  disappointed  followers  of 
the  Dictator ;  with  the  praetors  C.  Cassius  and  M.  Brutus 
at  their  head.  At  a  meeting  of  the  senate  (in  the  curia  of 
Pompey),  on  the  15th  of  March,  44,  Caesar  received 
twenty-three  dagger  wounds,  and  fell  lifeless  at  the  base 
of  Pompey's  statue. 


§  151.  Consequences  of  Casar's  Assassination. 

615  The  murderers,  having  perpetrated  their  bloody  deed, 
B  were  content  to  leave  all  further  proceedings  to  the  senate, 

who  endeavored  to  conciliate  both  parties  by  confirming 
the  laws  and  ordinances  of  Caesar  (on  the  motion  of  the 
Consul,  Marcus  Antonius  [Mark  Antony]),  and  at  the 
same  time  passing  an  act  of  indemnity  for  his  assassination. 
Antony  alone  refused  to  sanction  this  amnesty,  and 
delivered  over  the  body  of  Caesar  a  funeral  oration, 
which  excited  the  people  to  fury,  and  drove  the  assassins 
from  the  city  into  the  provinces  assigned  them  by  Caesar ; 
Decimus  Brutus  into  Gallia  Cisalpma,  M.  Brutus  into 

c  Macedonia,  C.  Cassius  into  Syria.  No  sooner  were  they 
departed,  than  Antony,  who  had  obtained  possession  of  the 
late  dictator's  papers  immediately  after  his  death,  contrived 
by  the  most  unscrupulous  falsification  of  his  ordinances  to 
dispose,  as  he  thought  fit,  of  offices,  provinces,  estates,  pri- 
vileges, and  civil  rights.  These  proceedings  were  soon 
resisted  by  Octavianus,  a  youth  of  nineteen,  great 
nephew  and  adopted  son  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  availed 
himself  at  first  of  the  assistance  of  the  aristocracy,  then 
annihilated  them  by  the  aid  of  Antony,  and  finally  de- 
stroyed Antony  himself. 

D  Desiring,  like  Caesar,  to  have  an  army  and  a  province  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Rome,  Antony  persuaded  the  people 
to  pass  a  resolution,  calling  on  D.  Brutus  to  exchange  Gaul 
for  Macedonia.  The  refusal  of  Brutus  to  recognize  this 
decree,  unsanctioned  as  it  was  by  the  senate,  occasioned 

616  The   civil    war  of  Mutlna,  44—48,   between  M. 


617,  618.  §  152.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  291 

Antony  and  D.  Brutus.  Antony  blockaded  his  adversary  (616) 
in  M utfna  [now,  Modena],  and  was  denounced  by  the  senate  A 
(on  the  motion  of  Cicero  ;  his  Philippic  orations),  as  an 
enemy  of  the  republic.  The  two  consuls  of  the  year  43, 
Pansa  and  Hirtius,  then  marched  to  the  assistance  of  Brutus, 
accompanied  by  Octavian  (as  propraetor) ;  Pansa  fell  in  the 
first  engagement,  and  Hirtius  in  the  battle  of  M  u  1 1  n  a,  where 
Antony  was  defeated.  Octavian  now  took  the  command, 
as  the  only  surviving  general ;  but  finding  himself  at  pre- 
sent too  weak  to  encounter  both  Antony  and  the  conspirators, 
he  determined,  in  the  first  place,  to  destroy  the  murde:ers 
of  Caesar,  and  in  order  to  effect  this,  abandoned  his  pursuit 
of  Antony,  who  escaped  into  Gaul.  This  change  of  plan 
was  the  more  easy,  as  the  senate  had  intrusted  the  duty 
not  to  himself,  but  to  Brutus. 


§  152.   The  Second  Triumvirate. 

Octavian,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  obtained  the  consul-  617 
ship  by  means  of  his  troops,  and  persuaded  the  people  to  B 
institute  proceedings  against  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  not- 
withstanding the  amnesty.  Then  he  marched  nominally 
against  Antony  (with  whom  he  had  already  entered  into 
negotiations  through  M.  Lepidus,  propraetor  of  Gaul), 
compelled  the  senate  to  recall  its  decree  against  him,  and 
established  a  union  on  an  island  near  Bononia  [now  Bo- 
logna'] (in  the  Lavinius  ?),  with  Lepidus  and  Antony,  for 
the  administration  of  the  government  during  a  period  of  Jive 
years,  and  the  annihilation  of  the  parly  of  Brutus  and  Cas- 
sius.  This  was  called  the  second  triumvirate.  The 
people,  on  their  part,  were  required  to  confirm  the  trium- 
viri in  their  office  for  five  years. 

Before,  however,  they  commenced  the  war  against  the  618 
assassins  of  Caesar,  it  was  desirable  to  remove  the  most  c 
influential  of  their  enemies  at  Rome,  lest,  during  their 
absence,  S.  Pompeius,  who  still  maintained  his  position  in 
Sicily,  should  be  invited  to  return.     With  this  view  they 
revived  the  proscription,  and  under  pretence  of  avenging 
the  murder  of  Caesar  and  restoring  peace  to  the  state, 
denounced  more  than  100  senators  and  2000  knights,  the 
confiscation  of  whose  estates  would   supply  funds  for  a 
fresh  war.    Among  these  victims  was  Cicero.    Antony  and 


292  EUROPE. — ROME.     [619—621.  §  152, 

(618)  Octavian  now  marched  into  Macedonia  and  took  the  field 
A  against  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Two  battles  were  fought  at 
Philippi.  In  the  first,  Brutus  routed  the  army  of  Octa- 
vian, and  Antony  that  of  Cassius,  who  compelled  one  of 
his  slaves  to  put  him  to  death ;  in  the  second,  Brutus  also 
was  defeated  by  Antony,  and  fell  on  his  own  sword. 

After  the  battle  the  victors  separated ;  Antony  under- 
taking to  raise  the  money  promised  to  the  troops  in  the 
countries  which  they  had  wrested  from  the  murderers  of 
Caesar,  whilst  Octavian  returned  to  Italy  for  the  purpose 
B  of  allotting  lands  to  his  veteran  soldiers.  Cleopatra  had 
been  summoned  to  Tarsus  by  Antony,  to  answer  for  her 
conduct  in  supporting  Cassius,  but  the  charms  of  the 
Egyptian  queen  so  captivated  the  conqueror,  that  he  fol- 
lowed her  into  Egypt.  Meanwhile,  the  attempts  of  his 
wife,  Fulvia,  to  compel  his  return  by  stirring  up  insurrec- 
tions at  home  occasioned  the 

619  Perusian  civil  war,  41 — 40. 

Octavian  had  experienced  considerable  difficulty  in  arranging  the 
distribution  of  lands  among  his  veterans,  the  original  proprietors  re- 
quiring indemnification,  and  the  soldiers  themselves  being  dissatisfied 
with  their  allotments.  At  the  instigation  of  Fulvia,  L.  Antonius, 
brother  of  the  triumvir,  came  forward  as  the  champion  of  these  dis- 
contented spirits,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  (at  Perusia),  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next  year  (41). 

620  M.  Antony  had  returned  to  Italy,  and  was  in  the  act  of 
c  negotiating  an  alliance  against  Octavian  with  S.  Pompeius, 

who  had  subdued  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  when  the 
death  of  Fulvia  smoothed  the  way  for  a  reconciliation. 
The  triumviri  having  met  at  Brundusium,  a  final  division  of 
the  empire  was  arranged,  Octavian  receiving  the  western 
provinces,  Antony  the  eastern,  and  Lepidus  Africa.  To 
cement  their  friendship,  Antony  married  Octavia,  the  sister 
of  Octavian.  The  blockade  of  Italy  by  S.  Pompeius  hav- 
ing occasioned  a  famine  in  the  city,  the  triumviri  concluded 
an  armistice  (at  Misenum),  by  which  the  province  of 
Achaia  and  the  consulate  were  guaranteed  to  him,  together 
with  an  indemnification  for  the  loss  of  his  property,  Pom- 
pey,  on  his  part,  pledging  himself  to  supply  Italy  with 
D  grain.  The,. imperfect  fulfilment  of  these  conditions  by 
both  parties  occasioned 

621  A  renewal  of  the  war  between- Octavian  and  S. 
Pompeius.     The  war  was  carried  en  at  first  with  indif- 


622,  623.  §  153.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  293 

ferent  success  by  Octavian,  who  received  very  little  assist-  (6*1) 
ance  from  his  colleagues.  A  considerable  naval  force  A 
having  however  been  assembled  by  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa, 
and  reinforced  by  a  squadron  from  the  fleet  of  Antony,  a 
battle  was  fought  off  M  y  1  ae,  in  which  Pompey  was  defeated. 
He  fled  to  Asia  Minor  and  was  assassinated  at  Miletus. 
Lepidus  had  also  landed  in  Sicily,  and  claimed  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  island ;  but  his  troops  being  gained  over  by 
Octavian,  he  was  compelled  to  resign  his  provinces  and 
the  office  of  triumvir,  and  retired  to  Circeii  (where  he  lived 
as  pontifex  maximus  until  B.  c.  13).  Having  thus  set  aside 
two  of  his  rivals,  Octavian  prepared  for  a  decisive  struggle 
with  the  third. 


§  153.  Foreign  Wars  of  Antony  and  Octavian. 

War  of  Antony  with  the  Parthians.  In  the  yea?  322 
39  the  Parthians,  who  in  the  preceding  year  had  overrun  •» 
Syria,  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Asia  Minor,  were  driven 
across  the  Euphrates  by  Ventidius,  the  lieutenant  of  An- 
tony. A  considerable  portion  of  the  Roman  possessions  in 
Asia  (Phoenicia,  Ccelesyria,  and  parts  of  Cilicia  and  Ju- 
daea), was  presented  to  Cleopatra  by  Antony,  who  had 
entered  Asia  for  the  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  the  war, 
and  now  (in  36)  undertook  an  expedition  against  the  Par- 
thians, in  conjunction  with  Artavasdes,  king  of  Armenia. 
In  a  very  short  space  of  time  he  had  penetrated,  by  forced 
marches,  as  far  as  Media  ;  but  the  constant  alternation  of 
flight  and  attack,  with  which  he  was  harassed  by  the  ene- 
my, the  scarcity  of  provisions,  the  advanced  season  of  the 
year,  and  the  defection  of  the  Armenians,  compelled  him 
to  retreat.  At  a  later  period  (in  34)  the  faithless  king  c 
of  Armenia  was  taken  prisoner,  and  conveyed  in  triumph 
to  Alexandria.  The  Roman  provinces  in  Asia  were  pre- 
sented by  Antony  to  Cleopatra,  her  children,  and  Csesarion 
(whom  the  triumvir  declared  to  be  the  legitimate  son  of 
Caesar,  in  order  to  invalidate  the  claims  of  Octavian),  and 
soon  afterwards  (32)  letters  of  divorce  were  forwarded  to 
his  wife  Octavia. 

Wars  of  Octavian.  62i 

In  order  to  find  employment  for  his  legions,  and  replen-  D 
ish  his  military  chest,  Octavian  undertook  several  expedi- 


294  EUROPE. — ROME.     [624—626.  §154. 

A  tions  against  the  imperfectly  reduced  tribes  among  the 
Julian  Alps  and  on  the  shores  of  Illyria.  The  lapydae, 
Pannonians,  and  Dalmatians  were  now  subjected  to  the 
authority  of  Rome. 


§  154.   The  War  between  Octavian  and  Antony. 
(31  and  30.) 

624  The  term  of  the  triumviral  league,  which,  although  twice 
B  confirmed  for  five  years  by  the  people,  had  for  a  long  time 
been  little  more  than  a  name,  expired  at  the  end  of  the 
year  33.  War  was  declared  by  the  senate  against  Cleo- 
patra, who  now  exercised  unbounded  influence  over  An- 
tony, and  hoped,  through  him,  to  become  mistress  of  the 
Roman  empire.  The  immediate  cause  of  hostilities  was 
a  demand  on  the  part  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  that  the 
extravagant  grant  of  Antony  should  be  confirmed  by  the 
senate. 

g25  Antony,  instead  of  crushing  his  enemies  (as  he  might  easily  have 
done  in  their  unprepared  condition),  by  a  sudden  descent  on  the 
shores  of  Italy,  wasted  his  time  in  dalliance  with  Cleopatra ;  and  on 
the  appearance  of  Octavian  in  the  Ionian  sea,  with  a  fleet  under  the 
command  of  Agrippa,  determined,  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  his 
mistress,  to  risk  a  naval  engagement. 

626  On  the  2d  of  September,  31,  a  brilliant  victory  was 
gained  by  M.  Agrippa  off  the  promontory  of  Actium. 
Cleopatra  and  Antony  fled,  before  the  fortune  of  the  day 
was  decided,  and  sought  refuge  in  Egypt ;  their  fleet  was 
burnt,  and  the  land  forces  surrendered  to  the  victor.  Oc- 
tavian proceeded  into  Syria,  and  thence  invaded  Egypt, 
where  he  urged  Cleopatra  to  rid  him  of  his  adversary. 
Egypt  became  a  Roman  province. 

D  Antony,  who  had  been  abandoned  by  his  fleet  and  cavalry,  was 
now  informed,  by  command  of  Cleopatra  herself,  that  she  had  com- 
mitted suicide  ;  and  fell  on  his  own  sword.  Finding  her  efforts  to 
captivate  Octavian  utterly  fruitless,  and  having  learnt  that  she  was 
destined  to  adorn  his  triumph,  Cleopatra  also  destroyed  herself  (pro- 
bably by  taking  poison),  and  was  buried  by  the  side  of  Antony. 


627 — 629.  §  155.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  295 

THIRD  PERIOD. 
C.     Rome  under  Emperors. 

(B.  c.  30.— A.  D.  476  ) 

§  155.   C.  Julius  Caisar  Octaoianus  Augustus. 
(B.  c.  30.— A.  D.  14.) 

In  the  month  of  Sextllis  (named  from  him  Augustus),  627 
B.  c.  39,  Octavian  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  distributed  A 
largesses  among  the  citizens,  and  celebrated  a  triple 
triumph  for  his  victories  in  Dalmatia  (and  the  neighboring 
countries),  at  Actium  and  in  Egypt.  The  temple  of  Janus 
was  now  closed  for  the  third  time.  Perceiving  the  impos- 
sibility of  establishing  his  authority  on  a  permanent  footing 
by  acts  of  violence,  Octavian  determined  to  obtain  from 
the  senate,  as  free  concessions  (at  least  in  appearance),  the 
recognition  of  those  privileges  which  he  had  already  vir- 
tually conferred  on  himself.  With  this  view  he  persuaded  B 
them  to  invest  him  with  all  the  highest  offices  of  state,  and, 
at  a  later  period,  to  commit  to  him  the  legislative  authority 
and  emancipate  him  from  the  control  of  the  laws.  At  the 
same  time  most  of  the  magistracies  were  retained  in  name, 
but  were  entirely  dependent  on  the  will  of  the  emperor ;  a 
form  of  constitution  which  lasted  for  more  than  300  years. 
The  title  of  Augustus,  conferred  on  him  in  the  year  27, 
was  also  borne  by  his  successors. 

The  constitution  under  the  emperors  to   the  reign628 
of  Diocletian.  c 

J  The  imperial  prerogative  comprehended  the  levy  of  the 
army,  the  imposition  of  taxes  (the  right  of  deciding  questions  of  war 
and  peace),  the  command-in-chief  of  all  the  legions,  and  the  power 
of  life  and  death.  The  princeps  exercised,  at  the  same  time,  the 
censorial  and  tribunitial  authority,  was  pontifex  maximus  and  a 
member  of  the  other  sacerdotal  colleges,  and  his  edicts  and  ordinances 
had  the  force  of  laws  and  decrees  of  the  senate.  The  election  of  his 
successor  was,  it  is  true,  pronounced  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  a 
resolution  of  the  curiae  (lex  regia),  but  for  the  first  two  centuries  the  * 
choice  regularly  fell  on  the  person  whom  his  predecessor  thought 
fit  to  indicate  by  adopting  him  as  his  son,  or  by  conferring  on  him 
the  title  of  Caesar,  or  admitting  him,  as  his  colleague,  to  a  share  in  the 
government. 

2.  The  senate  was  limited  by  Octavian  [Augustus] to  600  mem-  629 
bers,  all  of  whom  were  devoted  to  his  person.  At  a  later  period  Italians 
and  other  provincials  as  well  as  Romans,  were  nominated  by  the 
14 


'296  EUROPE. — ROME.     [630—633.  §  155. 

(629)  princeps,  provided  they  possessed  a  census  of  1,200,000  sesterces  and 
.  were  twenty-five  years  of  age.  Instead  of  the  senate,  the  advisers 
of  the  Imperator  were  generally  the  members  of  his  privy  council 
(concilium,  or  consistorium  principis).  From  the  time  of  Tiberius 
the  people  ceased  to  have  any  share  in  legislation,  their  decisions 
being  superseded  by  senates  consulta  and  edicts  of  the  emperors, 
which  latter  soon  became  the  chief  sources  of  law. 

630  3.  The  magistracies. 

a.  The  ancient  magistrates. — The  Consuls  were  generally  elected 
every  two  months,  and  retained  merely  the  privilege  of  presiding  in  the 
senate,  and  a  share  in  the  jurisdiction  ;  the  Praetors,  -Kdiitf*,  and  Tri- 
bunes, continued  to  exercise  their  functions  with  certain  alterations ; 
the  Censors  (of  whom  the  Princeps  was  always  one),  were  suppressed 
in  the  second  century  ;  the  Quaestors  (from  the  time  of  Claudius),  were 
charged  also  with  the  superintendence  of  the  gladiatorial  combats. 
B  b.  New  officers,  a. — The  Praefectus  urbi,  who  was  intrusted  with 
authority  sufficient  for  the  preservation  of  public  order,  and  with  the 
jurisdiction  in  criminal  cases  (at  first  in  conjunction  with  the  quaes- 
tiones).  /?.  The  Praefecti  praetorio,  originally  only  the  commandants 
of  the  body-guard  (of  ten  praetorian  cohorts),  raised  by  Octavian,  but 
employed,  soon  after  the  institution  of  the  office,  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  and  other  duties.  They  took  precedence  immediately 
after  the  emperor,  y.  The  Praefectus  annonae,  who  superintended 
the  supply  of  corn. 

The  Emperor  always  exercised  considerable  influence  over  these 
appointments,  which  after  the  third  century  were  entirely  in  his  own 
hands. 

631  4.  Rome  and  Ital  y. — After  the  admission  of  all  Italians  to  the 
c  rights  of  citizenship,  Rome,  instead  of  being  itself  the  state,  became 

merely  the  capital  of  a  more  extended  empire.  Octavian  divided  the 
city  (which  had  been  considerably  embellished  by  his  exertions), 
into  fourteen,  and  Italy,  as  far  as  the  Alps,  into  eleven  regiones. 
The  other  cities  were  distinguished  by  the  titles  of  municipia,  colonise, 
and  praefecturae,  but  their  internal  constitution  was  the  same  in  all 
essential  particulars.  The  population  of  these  cities  was  presided 
over  by  magistrates  elected  annually,  and  by  a  senate  or  ordo  decu- 
rionum. 

632  5.  The  provinces  were  divided  by  Octavian  into — a. provincial 
principis,  the  more  important  provinces,  which  were  always  occupied 
by  a  considerable  military  force,  and  regarded  the  emperor  himself 
as  their  governor.      Consequently   the   administration   was   always 
committed  to  imperial  lieutenants  with  praetorian  authority  (termed, 

D  at  a  later  period,  praesides  and  correctores).  b.  Provincial  senates, 
comprehending  all  the  others,  which  required  only  a  small  force,  and 
were  administered  by  proconsuls  with  the  assistance  of  lieutenants 
and  quaestors. 

633  6.  T  a  x  a  t  i  o  n. — In  addition  to  the  public  exchequer,  Octavian 
established  from  taxes,  and  other  sources,  a  military  terarium,  for  the 
remuneration  and  maintenance  of  his  soldiers ;  and  a  fiscus,  or  privy 
purse.  ^ 

For  the  protection  of  the  frontiers,  standing  armies  were  quartered 
in  castra  Btatlva  on  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  Euphrates. 


634,  635.  §  155.]       EUROPE. — ROME.  297 

The  wars  of  Augustus.  634 

The  object  of  these  wars  was  not  so  much  the  acquisi-  A 
tion  of  fresh  territory  as  the  security  of  that  which  Rome 
already  possessed.  Thus,  for  the  purpose  of  tranquil- 
lizing Spain,  the  hitherto  unconquered  Cantabrians  and 
Asturians  were  completely  subjugated  by  Agrippa  (19). 
The  eastern  frontier  of  the  empire  was  secured  by  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Parthians,  whose  king  (Phraates) 
no  sooner  heard  of  the  arrival  of  Augustus  in  Syria  (20), 
than  he  restored  the  standards  and  prisoners  captured  from 
the  army  of  Crassus.  To  protect  Italy  and  Gaul  against  B 
the  invasion  of  the  Germanic  tribes,  Drusus  and  Tiberius, 
step-sons  of  Augustus,  first  subdued  the  Alpine  clans  in 
Rhaetia,  Vindelicia,  and  Noricum,  as  far  as  the 
Danube  (15).  Then  expeditions  were  undertaken,  by 
Drusus,  and  after  his  death  by  Tiberius,  from  Gaul  into 
the  interior  of  Germany  (comp.  B.  ii.  §  3).  Although 
the  people  of  lower  Germany  were  rather  won  by  fair  pro- 
mises and  alliances  than  subdued  by  the  sword,  the 
Romans  nevertheless  treated  the  whole  country  from  the 
Rhine  to  the  Elbe  as  their  province,  built  fortresses,  and 
introduced  the  Roman  language,  laws,  and  system  of  tax- 
ation. The  oppressive  administration  of  the  governor  L.  c 
Quinctilius  Varus  at  length  occasioned  an  insurrection 
of  the  tribes  of  Lower  Germany  (Cherusci,  Bructeres,  and 
Marsi),  under  Herman  or  Arminius,  the  son  of  a  prince 
of  the  Cherusci.  Varus,  misled  by  a  false  report  of  the 
revolt  of  some  remote  German  tribe  (the  Amsivarii  [al. 
Ampsivarii],  or  Sigambri  ?),  allowed  himself  to  be  drawn 
into  the  trackless  waste  of  the  Teutoburgian  forest, 
where  he  was  attacked  by  Herman,  and  three  of  the  best 
Roman  legions  were  cut  to  pieces,  A.  D.  9. 

For  the  golden  age  of  arts  and  sciences  (under  Augus- 
tus), see  §  165. 

The  remaining  days  of  Augustus  were  rendered  miserable  by  the  535 
excesses  of  his  daughter,  Julia,  and  his  granddaughter,  and  by  the 
unscrupulous  perseverance  with  which  his  third  wife,  Livia,  labored 
to  secure  the  succession  of  her  son,  Tiberius,  whom  Augustus  was 
at  last  persuaded  to  adopt  and  nominate  as  co-regent.  The  emperor 
died  at  Nola  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age. 


298 


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636,  637.  §  156.]       EUROPE.— ROME.  299 

§  156.  Four  Emperors  of  the  House  of  Livia. 

(14-68.) 

1.  Tiberius,  14 — 37,  the  chief  traits  in  whose  character  636 
were  envy,  dissimulation,  and  cruelty,1  had  been  persuaded  A 
by  his  mother  Livia,  to  adopt  his  nephew  Germanicus, 
whom  he  was  now  eagerly  striving  to  set  aside.    With  this 
intention  he  recalled  him  from  Germany,  (where  he  had 
made  three  campaigns,  (especially  against  the  Chatti  and 
Cherusci),  and  overthrown  Arminius  (at  Idistavisus),  and 
was  in  the  very  act  of  wiping  out  by  fresh  victories  the 
disgrace   which  the  Roman  arms  had  sustained   in  that 
country,)  and  sent  him  into  ihe  east,  where  he  reduced 
Cappadocia  and  Commagene  to  the  condition  of  Roman 
provinces,  and  soon  afterwards  died  of  poison.      For  the  B 
security  of  his  person,  Tiberius  assembled  the  guards, 
who  were  scattered  throughout  Italy,  and  quartered  them 

in  a  camp  near  Rome.  Their  commander  Sejai/us  was 
also  allowed  to  exercise  considerable  influence  over  the 
government,  which  had  now  assumed  an  entirely  despotic 
character.  The  anxiety  of  Tiberius  was  so  effectually 
fostered  by  Sej  anus,  that  after  a  little  time  he  quitted  the 
Capitol,  and  retired  to  the  luxurious  island  of  Caprese, 
leaving  Sejanus  as  his  lieutenant  at  Rome.  After  nine  c 
years  of  tyranny  at  Rome  and  throughout  Italy,  Sejanus 
fell  a  victim  to  his  own  ambitious  project  of  raising  himself 
to  the  imperial  throne.  Tiberius,  in  the  seventy-seventh 
year  of  his  age,  was  smothered  with  pillows,  near  Misenum. 

2.  His  successor,  C.  Caligula,  in  the  very  first  year  of  637 
his  reign  squandered  the  enormous  treasure  of  Tiberius  in 
public   entertainments,    magnificent  spectacles  of  every 
description,  useless  buildings,  &c.   A  severe  illness  gradu- 
ally deprived  him  of  his  understanding,  and  after  a  reign  of  D 
four  years,  rendered  infamous  by  the  most  atrocious  cruel- 
ties, he  was  hurled  from  his  throne  by  a  conspiracy.     The 
senate  now  wished  to  re-establish  the  republic ;    but  this 
proposal  was  resisted  by  the  guards,  who  raised  to  the 
throne  the  weak-minded  uncle  of  the  murdered  emperor. 

1  [He  possessed,  however,  "  a  strong  intellect,  great  wit,  unwearied 
industry,  a  body  of  the  happiest  organization,  and  a  beautiful  and 
majestic  figure." — Niebuhr.] 


300  EUROPE.— ROME.       [638,  639.  §  156. 

638  3.  Claudius,  41 — 54,  who  resigned  the  reins  of  go- 
A  vernment  into  the  hands  of  his  profligate  wives  Messa- 
lina  and  Agrippina,  and  a  gang  of  abandoned  freedmen, 
among  whom  Polybius,  Narcissus,  and  Pallus  were  the 
most  conspicuous.  In  this  reign  began  the  Roman  con- 
quests in  Britain,  to  which  country  Claudius  himself  under- 
took an  expedition ;  Mauretania,  Lycia,  and  Thrace  became 
Roman  provinces,  and  Judaea  (after  the  death  of  Herod 
Agrippa)  was  again  ruled  by  Roman  governors. 

After  the  execution  of  Messalina,  Claudius  married  his  niece 
Agrippina,  who  at  once  persuaded  him  to  adopt  her  son  Nero)  in 
the  place  of  his  own  (Britannicus).  Then  she  poisoned  her  husband, 
in  the  hope  of  exercising  more  uncontrolled  power  in  the  name  of 
her  son. 


639  4.  Nero,  54 — 68,  reigned  at  first  with  wisdom  and 
B  moderation,  under  the  direction  of  his  praefectus  prsetorio 
Burrus,  and  the  philosopher  Seneca,  both  of  whom  opposed 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Agrippina.  The  murder  of  his 
step-brother  (Britannicus)  was  however  deemed  necessary 
for  his  security,  and  was  speedily  followed  by  that  of  his 
mother,  and  the  execution  of  his  wife  Octavia  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  mistress  Poppsea  Sabina.  After  the  perpe- 
tration of  these  acts  of  cruelty,  and  the  death  of  Burrus, 
Nero  gave  the  reins  to  his  naturally  capricious  and  ferocious 
disposition,  appeared  in  public,  both  in  Italy  and  Greece, 
as  a  charioteer  and  stage-player,  and  incurred  the  suspicion 
of  having  occasioned  the  great  conflagration  at  Rome,  by 
which  fourteen  regions  of  the  city  were  destroyed,  only 
c  three  remaining  uninjured.  The  blame  of  this  atrocity  was 
thrown  by  Nero  on  the  Christians,  whom  he  persecuted 
with  unrelenting  severity.  When  the  city  was  rebuilt, 
Nero  erected  a  palace  called  his  golden  house,  which 
occupied  the  whole  of  the  Palatine  hill,  and  a  considerable 
space  beyond.  Repeated  conspiracies  furnished  a  pretence 
for  a  great  number  of  executions ;  but  the  excesses  and 
cruelties  of  Nero  having  at  length  occasioned  a  general 
insurrection  throughout  the  empire,  Sulpicius  Galba,  go- 
vernor of  Hither  Spain,  a  veteran  of  seventy-three  years  of 
age,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  legions.  On  receiving 
intelligence  of  this  revolution,  Nero  fled  from  Rome,  and 
caused  himself  to  be  put  to  death  by  one  of  his  freedmen. 


640—643.  §  157,  158.]     EUROPE.— ROMR.  801 


§  157.   Three  Emperors  proclaimed  by  the  Legions. 
(68,69.)  ' 

Sulpicius  Galba  (June,  68 — Jan.  69),  on  his  arrival  at  640 
Rome,    rendered   himself  odious   by  the   cruelty  of  his  A 
punishments  (some  of  which  were  however  necessary), 
his  avarice,  and  the  partiality  which  he  displayed  towards 
his  favorites.      He  was  put   to   death   by  a  conspiracy 
headed  by 

Otho  (Jan. — April,  69),  a  former  favorite  of  Nero's,  641 
who  had  purchased  the  adherence  of  the  guards.     The  B 
legions  on  the  Rhine  had,  however,  already  chosen  (at 
Cologne),  their  own  commander  Vitellius,  who  was  speedily 
recognized  by  the  entire  western  portion  of  the  empire. 
His  generals  entered  Italy,  and  defeated  the  army  of  Otho, 
who  died  by  his  own  hand. 

Vitellius  (April — December,  69)  returned  to  Rome,  642 
where  he  expended  enormous  sums  on  the  luxuries  of  the 
table.  The  legions  employed  against  the  Jews  in  Palestine 
having  proclaimed  their  commander  Vespasian,  almost  the 
whole  army  and  all  the  provinces  abandoned  Vitellius,  who 
was  murdered  before  the  arrival  of  Vespasian  at  Rome. 

§  158.   The  Three  Flavii. 

Vespasianus  (69 — 79)  endeavored,  by  every  means  643 
in  his  power,  to  repair  the  injuries  inflicted  on  the  empire  c 
by  his  tyrannical  predecessors.  He  restored  discipline  in 
the  army,  and  order  in  the  finances  ;  completed  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  city ;  reinstated  the  senate  in  its  ancient  privi- 
leges, after  he  had  improved  its  character  by  increasing  the 
number  of  members,  and  removing  those  who  were  unworthy 
of  the  office  ;  countenanced  every  useful  undertaking,  pa- 
tronized the  arts  and  sciences,  and  supported  at  his  own 
expense  professors  of  eloquence.  He  himself  afforded  an  D 
example  of  severe  morality,  and  practised  a  frugality  which 
sometimes  degenerated  into  parsimony.  Wars. — 1.  He 
committed  to  his  son  Titus  the  task  of  crushing  a  revolt 
of  the  Jews  which  had  broken  out  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
and  which  was  terminated  by  the  storming  of  Jerusalem, 
4..  D.  70  (see  §  81,  6).  2.  An  insurrection  of  the 


302  EUROPE.— ROME.     [644—646.  §159. 

(643)  B  at  a  vi,  who  were  soon  joined  by  other  German  and  Gallic 
A  tribes,  was  suppressed  by  Vespasian's  general,  after  a 
bloody  engagement  near  [Augusta  Treverorum]  Treves. 
3.  The  war  in  Britain  was  commenced  afresh  by 
Agricola,  whose  mild  and  just  administration  reconciled 
the  Britons  to  the  Roman  yoke.  His  eldest  son 

644  Titus  (79 — 81),  surnamed   amor  et  deliciae  generis 
humani,  on  account  of  his  distinguished  qualities,  was  the 
wisest  and  noblest  of  all  the  Roman  emperors.     During 
his   short   reign   occurred    the    unexpected   and   terrible 
eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  (which  destroyed  the  cities  of 
Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  and  Stabise),  a  conflagration  which 
lasted   three   days,    and   the    pestilence    at   Rome.      His 
younger  brother 

645  Domitian  (81 — 96)  commenced  his  reign  auspiciously, 
B  but  soon  brought  back  the  abuses  of  Nero's  time.     With  a 

vanity  utterly  ridiculous  in  one  whose  chief  amusement  was 
the  slaughter  of  flies,  he  assumed  the  titles  of  "  Lord  "  and 
"God;"  combining  with  this  childish  folly  a  disposition 
to  extravagance,  which  led  him  to  commit  acts  of  gross 
oppression  and  cruelty.  Agricola  had  already  reduced 
England  and  Scotland,  as  far  north  as  Edinburgh,  to  tho 
condition  of  a  Roman  province,  when  the  suspicious  jea- 
c  lousy  of  Domitian  occasioned  his  recall.  The  tyrant  him- 
self undertook  an  expedition  into  Germany,  during  which 
he  probably  made  Swabia  a  province  of  Rome,  and  carried 
on  an  unsuccessful  war  against  the  Dacians,  whose  tur- 
bulence he  appeased  by  the  promise  of  an  annual  tribute ; 
and  then  celebrated  his  triumph  as  if  a  victory  had  been 
gained.  Domitian  was  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  his 
wife  (whom  he  had  destined  to  the  same  fate),  and  his 
name  erased  from  the  records  of  the  Roman  Empire. 


§  159.   The  most  flourishing  period  of  the  Empire. 
(96—180.) 

646  (M.  Cocceius)  Nerva  (96 — 98),  an  aged  senator,  was 
D  called  to  the  imperial  throne  after  the  assassination  of 
Domitian.  His  parsimony  occasioned  discontent  among 
the  people,  and  disgusted  the  Prcetorians,  whose  vengeance 
he  avoided  by  adopting  their  favorite  general  Ulpius 
'Frajanus. 


647,  648.  §  159.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  303 

Trajanus  [Trajan]  (98— 117),  a  Spaniard  (the  first 647 
foreign  emperor),  whilst  he  exhibited  the  most  commenda-  A 
ble  anxiety  for  the  improvement  of  every  branch  of  the  ad- 
ministration, more  especially  directed  his  attention  to  the 
aggrandizement  of  the  empire.  The  Dacians,  on  his  refusal 
to  continue  the  tribute  granted  to  them  by  Domitian,  resumed 
their  predatory  incursions,  and  were  finally  subdued  after 
two  campaigns  ;  the  events  of  which  are  represented  in  relief 
on  Trajan's  column.  In  two  (?)  campaigns  against  the  Par- 
ihians  (who  had  placed  a  vassal  on  the  throne  of  Armenia), 
Trajan  reduced  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria  to  the 
condition  of  Roman  provinces,  stormed  Ctesiphon  the 
Parthian  capital,  and  advanced  towards  Arabia  as  far  as 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Some  advantages  were  also  gained  by 
the  governor  of  Syria  in  Arabia  Petraea.  The  revolt  of  B 
some  nations  and  cities  in  his  rear,  especially  of  the  Jews, 
compelled  the  emperor  to  commence  a  retreat,  during 
which  he  died,  leaving  his  throne  to  his  learned,  but  vain 
and  pedantic,  countryman  and  kinsman, 

(P.  jElius)  Hadrianus  (117 — 138),  who  concluded  a  648 
peace  with  the  Parthians,  to  whom  he  restored  the  almost 
untenable  conquests  of  his  predecessor  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Euphrates  (Armenia  also  received  back  her  kings,  as 
vassals  of  Rome).  The  attention  of  the  new  emperor  was 
directed  exclusively  to  the  improvement  of  the  internal 
administration  of  his  empire.  To  promote  this  object,  he  c 
travelled  through  all  the  provinces,  generally  on  foot, 
embellished  the  capitals — Athens  by  the  addition  of  "  Ha- 
drian's town" — erected  monuments  (in  Rome  the  moles 
Hadriani)  and  frontier  fortresses  (in  Britain  a  rampart  of 
earth  against  the  Picts,  in  Germany  a  line  of  palisades  from 
the  Main  to  the  Danube) ;  commanded  Salvius  Julianus 
to  compile  from  the  edicts  of  the  praetors  a  code  of  civil 
law,  which  was  termed  edictum  perpetuum ;  selected  the 
members  of  his  consistorium  principis  chiefly  from  the 
college  of  jurists,  and  introduced  a  new  arrangement  of  the 
offices  of  state,  which  continued  to  the  latest  period  of  the 
empire  (officia  palatina,  publica  and  militaria).  Thej 
establishment  of  a  Roman  colony  (jEliaCapitollna),  with 
a  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem, 
occasioned  a  terrible  insurrection,  which  was  only  sup- 

14* 


304  EUROPE.— ROME.      [649—651.  §160. 

A  pressed  after  an  obstinate  struggle  of  three  years  (131 — 
133).     Hadrian  was  succeeded  by  his  adopted  son, 

649  Antoninus  Pius  (138 — 161),  of  whose  peaceful  and 
mild  reign  we  possess  only  a  few  detached  notices,  relating 
chiefly  to  his  private  life,  and    anxiety  for  the  internal 
welfare  of  his  empire.     A  small  portion  of  his  time  seems 
to  have   been   occupied   in   unimportant  wars  with   the 
Germans  and  Dacians,  and  the  suppression  of  revolts  in 
some  of  the  provinces.     Antoninus  had  already,  at  the 
desire  of  Hadrian,  adopted  the  stoic  philosopher, 

650  M.  A u  re li us  Antoninus  (161 — 180),  and  the  weak  and 
B  profligate  L.  Verus,  who  ascended  the  throne  together. 

At  the  request  of  M.  Aurelius,  Verus  undertook  the 
conduct  of  a  war  against  the  Parthians,  who  had 
invaded  the  eastern  provinces.  The  management  of  the 
campaign  was,  nevertheless,  intrusted  by  Verus  to  his  lieu- 
tenants, who  brought  the  war  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion ; 
whilst  their  general,  both  in  the  east,  and  after  his  return, 
seemed  only  to  live  for  his  dissolute  pleasures.  During 
the  Parthian  war,  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Roman 
empire,  already  devastated  by  a  pestilence  brought  into 
them  from  the  east,  were  ravaged  by  the  Marcomanni, 
Quadi,  and  other  German  tribes,  who  extended  their 
c  conquests  to  Italy  itself.  Their  audacity  occasioned 
the  great  war  of  the  Marcomanni,  which  was  carried 
on  by  Marcus  Aurelius  in  person  (166 — 180).  Thrice 
he  crossed  the  Alps,  and  remained  several  years  in  the 
countries  on  the  other  side  of  those  mountains.  The 
two  first  wars  were  terminated  by  treaties;  but  these 
attempts  to  conciliate  the  barbarians  proving  ineffectual, 
Aurelius  again  attacked  them,  and  gained  an  important 
victory,  but  died  before  he  could  bring  the  war  to  a  con- 
clusion. 


§  160.  Decline  of  the  Empire  vnderthe  Pr&toriaiis. 
(180—284.) 

651      Commodus  (180 — 192),  the   feeble-minded  son    of 

D  Marcus  Aurelius,  granted  peace  to  the  Marcomanni  and 

Quadi,  on  condition  of  their  furnishing  a  yearly  contingent. 

The  flatterers  of  the  young  emperor  availed  themselves  of 


652—655.  §  160.]     EUROPE.— ROME.  305 

his  weakness  to  lead  him  into  the  most  scandalous  excesses,  (651) 
and  of  the  mistrust  occasioned  by  the  discovery  of  several  A 
conspiracies,  to  counsel  acts  of  ferocious  cruelty.  The 
government  was  intrusted  to  the  praefect  of  his  guard  for 
the  time  being,  whilst  the  emperor  exhibited  himself  as 
Hercules  Romanus  in  gladiatorial  shows  (735  times)  and 
combats  with  wild  beasts.  His  insane  pranks  at  last  so 
terrified  even  his  favorite  courtiers,  that,  in  order  to  save 
their  own  lives,  they  put  him  to  death,  and  raised  to  the 
throne  Pertinax,  the  preefectus  urbi,  who  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  the  senate. 

Pertinax  (193)  was  murdered  by  the  guards  (whose  652 
excesses  he  endeavored  to  restrain),  after  a  reign  of  three  B 
months.      The   imperial  throne  was  now  offered  to  the 
highest  bidder,  and  purchased  by 

Didius  Julianus.     In  three  provinces,  however,  the  653 
legions  declared  against  him,  and  proclaimed  their  own 
generals,  one  of  whom,  the  commander  of  the  lllyrian 
legion, 

Septimius  Severus,  being  the  first  to  appear  in  Italy,  654 
was  recognized  by  the  senate,  after  the  assassination  of 
Pertinax,  and  enabled  to  bid  defiance  to  his  rivals.  All 
the  leisure  allowed  him  by  his  constant  wars,  was  devoted 
by  this  emperor  to  the  correction  of  various  abuses,  which 
had  crept  into  the  administration,  and  to  the  amendment  of 
the  legal  code,  a  task  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the 
jurists  Papinianus,  Paulus,  and  Ulpianus.  In  extreme  old  c 
age,  Severus,  in  conjunction  with  his  sons  Geta  and  Cara- 
calla,  undertook  an  expedition  into  Britain,  for  the  purpose 
of  chastising  the  Scottish  Highlanders,  who  had  broken 
through  the  rampart  of  Hadrian.  After  penetrating  the 
most  remote  recesses  of  the  Highlands,  and  strengthening 
the  former  mound  (probably  that  of  Hadrian)  by  a  wall, 
Severus  died  at  York,  partly  of  grief  occasioned  by  the 
ingratitude  of  his  sons,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  imperial 
throne. 

C  a  r  a  c  a  1 1  a  (211 — 217),  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  murdered  655 
his  brother,  and  soon  afterwards  put  to  death  20,000  men,  women,  D 
and  children,  under  pretence  of  their  being  his  adherents.     Among 
these  victims  was  the  advocate  Papinianus,  who  had  refused  to  defend 
the  fratricide.     In  order  to  satisfy  the  greediness  of  his  soldiers,  and 
at  the   same   time   procure   sufficient  funds  for   his    own    prodigal 


306  EUROPE. — ROME.     [656 — 658.  §  160. 

(655)  expenditure,  Caracalla,  after  exhausting  the  treasures  accumulated 
A  by  his  father,  put  to  death  a  number  of  the  richer  citizens,  granted 
the  full  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  to  the  inhabitants  of  all  the 
provinces  (constitutio  Antoniniana  de  civitate),  that  he  might  subject 
them  to  the  payment  of  heavier  taxes,  and  visited  the  provinces  in 
person  for  the  purpose  of  extorting  money.  On  these  excursions  he 
appeared  in  Macedonia  as  Alexander,  and  in  Asia  as  Achilles.  At 
Alexandria  he  put  to  death  a  great  number  of  persons  in  revenge  for 
eome  insult  offered  to  him  by  the  citizens.  After  invading  and 
ravaging  Media,  he  was  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  the  praef. 
praet. 

656  Macrlnus  (217),  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne.     This  em- 
B  peror   purchased   peace  from  the  Parthians,  who   had   entered  the 

Roman  dominions  with  the  intention  of  making  reprisals  for  the 
invasion  of  Media  by  Caracalla.  The  withdrawal  of  several  privileges 
hitherto  enjoyed  by  the  army  in  Syria,  so  disgusted  the  soldiers,  that 
they  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  a  priest  of  the  sun,  named  Bassianus 
Heliogabalus,  a  youth  of  fourteen,  the  son,  as  they  pretended,  of  the 
late  emperor,  Caracalla.  Macrinus  was  defeated  near  Antiochia,  and 
lost  his  life  in  attempting  to  escape  from  his  pursuers. 

657  Heliogabalus  (217 — 22^)   gave  himself  up  to  every  sort  of 
sensual  enjoyment ;  whilst  his  mother  and  grandmother  administered 
the  affairs  of  his   empire,  and  even  attended  the  meetings  of  the 
senate.     He  was  persuaded  to  adopt  his  cousin  Alexander  Severus, 
whom  he  afterwards  wished  to  destroy,  and  lost  his  own  life  in  endea- 
voring to  carry  his  murderous  intentions  into  effect. 

658  Alexander  Severus  (222 — 235),  under  the  direction 
c  of  his  excellent  mother  Mammsea,  and  a  council  of  sixteen 

senators  (among  whom  was  Ulpianus),  reigned  with  as 
much  credit  as  was  possible,  considering  the  military 
tyranny  to  which  the  empire  was  now  subjected ;  but  the 
severity  with  which  he  treated  the  soldiers  occasioned 
several  mutinies  in  the  legions.  In  the  year  226  the 
Parthian  empire  was  dissolved,  and  the  new  Persian, 
founded  by  a  Persian,  named  by  the  Greeks  Artaxerxes, 
who  boasted  of  being  a  descendant  from  the  ancient  Persian 
D  kings.  The  new  sovereign  having,  in  his  eagerness  to 
extend  his  empire,  passed  the  Roman  frontier,  and  pro- 
ceeded as  far  as  Cappadocia,  the  emperor  undertook  an 
expedition  into  the  east,  where  he  gained  many  important 
advantages.  At  a  later  period  of  his  reign  an  irruption  of 
the  Germans  into  Gaul  rendered  his  presence  necessary  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  where  his  severity  occasioned  a 
mutiny  among  the  Gallic  legionaries,  which  ended  in  the 
murder  of  himself  and  his  mother,  by  whom  he  had  been 
accompanied  in  all  his  expeditions. 


659 — 667.  §  160.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  307 

Under  his  successors,  until  the  reign  of  Aurelian,  the  659 
empire  continued  to  decline,  partly  through  the  incessant  A 
incursions  of  neighboring  nations  (particularly  the  Ger- 
mans), and  partly  through  intestine  divisions,  which  occa- 
sioned the  elevation  of  rival  emperors  (nineteen  against 
Gallienus,  the  so-called    thirty  tyrants).     The  nine  em- 
perors, who  reigned  during  this  period  of  thirty-five  years, 
as  well  as  the  anti-Caesars,  obtained  and  lost  the  throne, 
generally  speaking,  through  assassination. 

In  opposition  to  Maximinus  (235 — 238), a  Thracian  herdsman,  660 
of  gigantic  size  and  strength,  two  rival  emperors  were  proclaimtd  in  3 
Africa — Gordian  I.,  and  his  son,  Gordian  II.     The  son  was  slain  in 
an  engagement  'rith  the  governor  of  Mauretania  ;  the  father  died  by 
his  own  hand.     The  senate  now  nominated  to  the  imperial  dignity 
two  members  of  their  own  body,  Maximus  and  Balbinus  ;  to  whom, 
at  the  request  of  the  people,  they  added  Gordian  III.,  grandson  of 
Gordian  I.     Maximinus,  on  his  return  from  Germany,  was  murdered 
by  his  own  soldiers  during  the  siege  of  Aquileia  ;  the  two  senators 
were  slain  by  the  Praetorians. 

Gordianus  (238 — 244),  who  governed  well  during  the  lifetime  661 
of  his  father-in-law  Misitheus,  was  assassinated,  after  the  death  of  his 
adviser,  by  the  Arabian 

Philippus  (244 — 249),  who  celebrated  with  great  magnificence  662 
the  thousandth  anniversary  of  the  building  of  Rome.     The    Pan-  „ 
nonian  Decius,  having  been  sent  into  Moesia  for  the  suppression  of  a 
revolt,   was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions   quartered   in   that 
country,  and  overcame  Philip,  who  lost  his  life  in  the  engagement. 

Decius  (249 — 251)  [the  persecutor  of  the  Christians]  was  slain  663 
in  battle  against  the  Goths,  who  had  invaded  Thrace.     The  legions 
now  proclaimed  their  commander 

Gallus  (251 — 253),  who  consented  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute  to  the  664 
Goths ;  and  on  that  account  was  deposed  and  murdered  by  JEmi- 
lianus,  governor  of  Moesia,  by  whom  the  Goths  had  been  attacked 
and  compelled  to  relinquish  their  booty. 

^Emilianus  (253)  was  put  to  death  by  his  soldiers  after  a  reign  665 
of  four  months,  and  succeeded  by 

Valerianus  (253—260),  who  had  entered  Italy  with  the  inten-  666 
tion  of  avenging  the  murder  of  Gallus      During   the  reign  of  this  D 
emperor,  the    Roman  dominions  were  invaded  on  all  sides  by  the 
Franks,  Alemanni,  Goths,  and  Persians,  who  were  feebly  resisted  by 
Valerian  and  his  son  Gallienus.     The  emperor  himself  was  taken 
prisoner  in  a  war  against  the  Persians. 

Gallienus  (26n — 268)  was  opposed  by  about  nineteen  rival  em-  667 
perors  (the  so-called  thirty  tyrants),  whose  conflicting  claims  occa- 
sioned the  most  hopeless  confusion.  Most  of  them,  it  is  true,  were 
soon  set  aside  ;  but  Tetricus  maintained  his  position  in  Gaul  and  Spain, 
whilst  Odenathus  of  Palmyra,  after  his  victory  over  the  Persians, 
obtained,  as  co-regent  with  Gallienus,  the  sovereignty  of  the  east, 
which  after  his  assassination  (267)  was  assumed  by  his  widow  Ze- 
nobia.  Under  these  two  sovereigns,  Palmyra  became  one  of  the 


308  EUROPE. — ROME.     [668 — 670.  §  160. 

A  most  flourishing  cities  of  the  east.  Gallienus,  whilst  besieging  his 
rival  Aureolus  in  Milan,  fell  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  bravest  of  his  generals, 

668  Claudius  II.  (268—270),  who  took  Milan,  and  put  Aureolus 
to  death.  This  emperor  materially  weakened  the  power  of  the  bar- 
barians by  a  victory  over  the  Alemanni  who  had  invaded  Italy,  and 
by  thrice  defeating  the  Goths  and  their  allies.  He  died  of  the 
plague,  after  recommending  the  ablest  of  his  generals,  Aurelian,  aa 
his  successor. 

fi69  Aurelianus  (270 — 275),  on  his  accession,  found  the 
empire  divided  ;  Tetricus  reigning  in  the  west,  and  Zenobia 
being  mistress  of  the  whole  Syrian  empire,  and  most  of 
the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.  His  successful 
endeavors  to  restore  the  integrity  of  the  empire  obtained 

B  him  the  surname  of  restitutor  patriae.  Before,  however, 
this  object  could  be  accomplished,  he  was  compelled  to 
sustain  several  invasions  of  the  German  tribes.  The  pro- 
vince of  Daria,  which  it  was  almost  impossible  to  protect, 
was  abandoned  to  the  Goths,  the  Roman  inhabitants  being 
transplanted  to  Mcesia  (Dacia  Aureliani);  but  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Marcomanni  and  Alemanni  (the  latter  of 
whom  had  penetrated  as  far  as  Umbria)  were  driven  back 
into  their  own  country.  A  new  wall  was  also  erected  for 
the  security  of  Rome  against  the  barbarians.  Aurelian 
then  marched  against  Zenobia,  who  was  in  the  act  of  sub- 
duing the  rest  of  Asia  Minor.  After  two  defeats  (at 
Antiochia  and  Emesa)  she  retreated  to  her  capital,  which 

c  was  besieged  by  Aurelian.  Zenobia  escaped  from  the 
city,  but  was  afterwards  taken  prisoner  and  conveyed  to 
Rome,  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  her  conqueror.  Palmyra, 
which  had  opened  its  gates  after  the  capture  of  the  queen, 
was  at  first  spared  ;  but  the  citizens  having,  after  the  em- 
peror's departure,  murdered  the  Roman  garrison,  Aurelian 
returned,  butchered  most  of  the  inhabitants,  and  destroyed 
the  city,  with  its  magnificent  temples  and  palaces.  Having 
subdued  Egypt  also,  he  marched  into  Gaul,  where  Tetricus 
weary  of  sovereignty,  suffered  himself  to  be  taken  pri 
soner  in  a  battle  near  Chalons.  The  emperor,  whose 
severity  had  rendered  him  odious,  was  assassinated,  during 
an  expedition  against  the  Persians,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
secretary. 

670  Tacitus  (who  was  nominated  to  the  imperial  dignity  by  the  se- 
nate), and  his  brother  Florianus,  reigned  only  a  few  months. 


671 — 673.  §161.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  309 

Probus  (276 — 282)  strained  every  nerve  to  restore  (670) 
the  ancient  military  discipline,  and  resisted  with  great  zeal  A 
and  success  the  numerous  inroads  of  German  tribes  (Bur- 
gundians,  Alemanni,  Vandals,  and  Franks)  into  the  Roman 
provinces.  He  advanced  into  Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe, 
compelled  nine  princes  to  pay  tribute,  strengthened  the 
frontier  lines  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube,  and  enlisted  a 
number  of  Germans  into  the  Roman  legions  (Return  of 
the  Franks  from  the  Black  sea  to  the  Rhine  ?).  After  a 
campaign  in  the  east,  followed  by  a  magnificent  triumph, 
the  emperor  put  in  execution  a  plan  for  re-peopling  the 
deserted  provinces  with  German  settlers.  The  discontent  B 
of  his  soldiers  (who  were  compelled  to  plant  vineyards, 
dig  canals,  make  roads,  drain  swamps,  &c.,  for  the  new 
colonists)  having  occasioned  the  assassination  of  Probus, 
the  army  chose  as  his  successor  the  prsefectus  praetorio 

Carus  (282,  283),  who  appointed  his  sons  Carinus  and  Numeria-  671 
nus  to  be  his  co-regents,  defeated  the  Sarmatae  (who  had  invaded 
Illyria),  and  lost  his  life  (probably  by  assassination)  during  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Persians. 

Carinus  and  Numerianus  (284).    Numerianus, on  his  march  672 
back  from  Persia,  was   murdered  by  his  own  father-in-law.     The  c 
soldiers,  who   were  disgusted  at  the    extravagant  luxury  in  which 
Carinus  lived  at  Rome,  having  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  Dio- 
cletian, commander  of  the  household  troops,  Carinus  took  the  field 
against  his  rival,  and  lost  his  life  in  Mcesia. 

§  161.  Period  occupied  by  partitions  of  the  Empire,  until 

the  reign  of  Constantine. 

(284—324.) 

Diocletianus  (284 — 305)  appointed  as  co-regent  his  673 
comrade  In  arms  Maximianus,  to  whom  he  committed  . 
the  administration  of  the  western  district.    Diocletian  him- 
self established  his  residence  in  Nicomedia,  where  he  in- 
troduced the  oriental  court  ceremonies,  whilst  his  colleague 
resided  alternately  at  Treves,  Aries,  and  Milan.     The  in-  D 
creasing  audacity  of  the  Germanic  tribes  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine  and  Danube,  soon  compelled  each  of  the  two 
emperors  to  appoint  a  colleague  (Constantius  Chlorus  and 
Galerius).     The  four  sovereigns  now  apportioned  among 
themselves  the  administration  of  the  provinces  and  the 
defence  of  the  frontiers ;  but,  in  spite  of  this  arrangement, 
rival   emperors  established  themselves   in  the  provinces 
(Carausius  in  Britain,  and  afterwards  Allectus  and  Achil- 


310  EUROPE. — ROME.     [674 — 676.  §161. 

(673)  leus  in  Egypt),  where  they  continued  to  reign  for  many 
A  years.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inroads  of  the  neighboring 
tribes  were  repressed ;  and  Galerius,  in  a  war  with  the 
Persians  (which  he  had  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of 
settling  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  Armenia),  obtained 
possession  of  five  provinces  on  the  other  side  of  the  Tigris, 
and  compelled  the  Persians  to  renounce  their  claims  on 
Mesopotamia.  At  the  instigation  of  Galerius,  Diocletian 
prohibited  the  celebration  of  Christian  worship,  and  com- 
menced a  cruel  persecution  of  the  Christians  throughout 
B  the  empire.  Finding  himself,  after  a  severe  illness,  too 
feeble  to  transact  the  business  of  government,  Diocletian 
abdicated  (contemporaneously  with  Maximian),  and  passed 
the  rest  of  his  life  at  Salona  in  Dalmatia,  where  he  amused 
himself  with  the  cultivation  of  a  garden. 

674  The   practice  of  apportioning  the  government  among 
four  sovereigns  still  continued  ;  Constantius  and  Galerius 
being  proclaimed  Augusti,  and  nominating  each  a  colleague. 
Aler  the  death   of  Constantius  (306),   which   happened 
during  an  expedition  into  Britain,  his  son  Constantinus 
was  proclaimed  emperor  in  that  country.     He  deposed  all 
the  coadjutors,  the  number  of  whom  now  amounted  to  five, 
and  became  in  the  year  324  sole  occupant  of  the  imperial 
throne. 

675  After  the  death  of  Constantius,  his  son  Constantinus  was  pro- 
c  claimed  emperor  by  the  troops  in  Britain,  and  Maxentius,  the 

feeble  son  of  Maximian,  by  those  at  Rome  ;  Galerius  nominated 
his  friend  Licinius  as  his  coadjutor  ;  Maximian  again  appeared 
in  the  character  of  emperor,  and  Maxim  in  also  assumed  the  title  of 
Augustus.  Thus  in  the  year  308  there  were  six  emperors. 

Constantius  caused  his  father-in-law  Maximian  (who  had  at- 
tempted his  life)  to  be  secretly  strangled ;  and  defeated  his  son 
Maxentius  in  three  engagements  (at  Turin,  Verona,  and  Saxa  rubra 
on  the  Tiber).  In  the  last  of  these  battles  Maxentius  was  drowned 
in  the  Tiber.  Galerius  died  in  consequence  of  his  excesses — 
Maximinus  was  defeated  by  Licinius,  and  took  poison. 
(J7Q  Constantinus,  and  his  brother-in-law  Licinius  (313 — 324). 
Constantine  soon  quarrelled  with  his  brother-in-law  (who  had  be- 
come too  powerful  since  his  victory  over  Maximin),  and  after  two 
defeats  forced  him  to  content  himself  with  the  Asiatic  provinces, 
Thrace  and  eastern  Moesia.  In  a  second  war,  Licinius  was  again 
defeated  in  two  engagements  (at  Adrianople  and  Chalcedon).  Being 
shut  up  in  Nicomedia,  he  consented  to  abdicate  on  condition  of  being 
permitted  to  depart  unmolested  ;  but  this  compact  was  violated  by 
Constantine,  who  put  him  to  death  at  Thessalonica,  and  thus  became 
monarch  of  the  entire  Roman  empire. 


677,  678.  §  162.]      E  JROPE.— ROME.  311 


§  162.  Constantine  the  Great,  sole  Emperor. 

(324—337.) 

Constantine,  who  from  the  commencement  of  his  reign  677 
had  permitted  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  to  the  A 
Christians,  himself  embraced  Christianity,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  miraculous  appearance  in  the  heavens,  imme- 
diately before  his  third  victory  over  Maxentius,  and  pro- 
claimed it  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  deferred  his 
baptism  until  the  close  of  his  life.  He  assembled  the 
first  oecumenical  council  at  Nicsea  (325),  where  the 
doctrine  of  Arius  (that  the  SON  of  GOD  is  inferior  to  GOD 
the  FATHER  [even  '  as  touching  his  Godhead '])  was  con- 
demned, and  the  doctrine  of  the  SON'S  essential  equality 
with  the  FATHER'  asserted  in  the  Symbdlum  Nicsenum 
[*  the  Nicene  Creed '],  in  which  it  is  expressed  by  the  term 
oftooiaioi;  (consubstantialis). 

2.  New  organization  of  the  Empire.  678 

Constantine  laid  the  foundation  of  a  future  division  of  B 
the  empire  in  the  establishment  of  a  new  capital  at 
Byzantium,  which  was  restored  on  a  scale  of  great  magni- 
ficence, and  repeopled,  but  not  without  the  commission  of 
many  acts  of  violence  and  oppression.  At  its  dedication 
in  330  or  334,  this  city  was  called  Nova  Roma,  but  at  a 
later  period  it  received  the  name  of  Constantinopolis. 
The  two  capitals  were  placed  on  an  equal  footing,  each 
having  its  own  senate  and  prsefect  of  the  city.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  empire  was  divided  into  thirteen  dioceses, 
which  were  subdivided  into  116  provinces.  At  the  head  of 
the  state  was  the  emperor,  who  in  most  cases  received  the 
title  of  Caesar  and  Augustus  from  the  armies,  or  was  ad- 
mitted to  that  dignity  by  his  predecessor.  His  lieutenants  c 
were,  as  before,  the  prsefecti  prsetorio,  whose  influence 
Constantine  weakened  by  increasing  the  number  to  four 
(I,  for  the  East  with  Thrace;  2,  for  lllyria,  with  Mace- 
donia and  Greece ;  3,  for  Italy  and  Africa  ;  4,  for  the 

1  This  question  tills  an  important  place  in  the  history  of  the  inva- 
sion and  the  revolutions  which  followed  it.  Many  of  the  Barbarians 
embraced  Arianism,  and  their  subsequent  hostility  to  the  Romans, 
or  to  other  barbarian  tribes,  may  often  be  traced  to  this  circumstance. 
Gibbon's  iilst  ch.  contains  a  masterly  exposition  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject, to  be  used  always  with  due  precaution. 


312  EUROPE. — ROME.     [679 — 681.  §162. 

(678)  West).  He  also  transferred  the  military  command  from 
A  those  officers  to  a  magister  peditum  and  magister  equitum. 
The  dioceses  were  administered  by  vicars  (deputies  of  the 
prsefeets),  and  the  provinces  by  rectors.  The  commanders 
of  the  troops  in  the  provinces  were  termed  duces,  and 
sometimes  also  comites. 

679  The  seven  chief  court  offices  were — 1.  The  praepositus  sacri 
cubiculi  (grand  chamberlain),  who  superintended   the  internal  ar- 
rangements of  the  imperial  palace.     2.  The  magister  officiorum  (im- 
perial chancellor),  who  was  charged  with  the   care  of  the  solemn 
representations   at   the   imperial  court,  and  exercised  a  jurisdiction 
over  all  the  other  officers.     3.  The  quaestor  sacri  palatii  (secretary 
of  state),  through  whom  all  new  laws  and  the  decisions  of  the  em- 
peror on  petitions  were  made  known  to  the  public.     He  also  counter- 
signed  the    cabinet  orders.      4    The  comes   sacrarum    largitionum 
(minister  of  finance).     5.  The  comes  rei  privatae  (privy-purse).     6 

J  and  7.  The  two  comites  domesticorum,  commanders  of  the  household 
troops,  which  occupied  the  place  of  the  disbanded  praetorians.  These 
seven  officers,  with  the  prsefectus  praet.,  the  praef.  urbi,  and  the 
counsellors  of  state  properly  so  called  (comites  consistoriani) ,  com- 
posed the  council  (consistorium)  of  the  emperor,  by  whom  they  were 
especially  consulted  on  questions  of  legislation.  Many  of  the  insti- 
tutions of  former  days  were  also  retained — a  senate,  for  instance,  in 
each  of  the  capitals,  which  were  sometimes  consulted  respecting  the 
laws,  or  commissioned  to  decide  the  more  important  criminal  cases — 
two  consuls,  praetors  and  quaestors,  dignities  from  which  a  heavy 
expenditure  was  inseparable.  The  highest  civil  and  military  officers 
down  to  the  comes  rei  privatae  were  designated  "  illustres ;"  next  to 
them  were  the  "  spectabiles,"  then  the  "  clarissimi,"  "  perfectissimi," 
and  last  of  all  the  "  egregii." 

680  The  Taxes. — 1.  An  annual  land  and  poll-tax,  levied  by  an  im- 
(i  perial  edict  termed  indictio.      This  tax,  which  was  paid  partly  in 

cash  and  partly  in  agricultural  produce,  was  founded  on  a  census, 
renewed  every  fifteen  years.  2.  A  tax  on  manufactures  and  trade. 
3  Revenue  derived  from  harbor  dues  and  duties  on  articles  brought 
overland,  mines,  coinage  of  money,  and  imperial  manufactures. 
4.  Golden  crowns  (aurum  coronarium),  presented  to  the  emperor  on 
solemn  occasions  as  marks  of  honor. 

681  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign,  Constantine  assisted  the 
Sarmatae  and  Vandals  in  a  war  against  the  Goths ;    and 
when  the  latter  entered    Moesia   with   the   intention   of 
avenging  themselves,  they  were  driven  back  into  their  own 

D  country.  A  great  number  of  the  Sarmatse  (300,000)  were 
settled  by  Constantine  in  the  Roman  provinces  on  the 
Danube.  His  eldest  son  Crispus  having  been  put  to  death 
on  the  accusation  of  his  wife  Fausta  (who  was  herself 
stifled  in  a  bath),  his  three  younger  sons  divided  the  empire 
among  themselves. 


682—685.  §163.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  313 


§  163.   The  successors  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the  per- 
manent division  of  the  Empire. 

(337—395.) 

Of  Constantino's  three  sons,  Constantius  (337—364)  682 
became  at  last  sole  emperor,  through  the  death  of  both  his  A 
brothers ;  one  of  whom  was  murdered  by  the  other,  and 
the  assassin  himself  destroyed  by  a  conspiracy.    The  rival 
emperors  were  also  all  set  aside. 

Constantine  II.  inherited  the  west,  Constantius  the  east  with  Con-  683 
stantinople,  anc.  Constans  the  country  lying  between  the  dominions 
of  his  two  brothers.  Whilst  Constantius  was  engaged  in  a  long  war 
with  the  Persians,  by  which  great  injury  was  inflicted  on  both  nations, 
Constantine  lost  his  life  in  an  attempt  to  depose  his  brother  Constans ; 
who  rendered  himself  contemptible  by  his  excesses,  and  fell  a  victim 
to  a  conspiracy.  Thus  Constantius  (after  also  expelling  two  usurpers) 
became  sole  occupant  of  the  throne. 

The  Alemanni  and  Franks  having  invaded  Gaul,  Con-  684 
stantius  intrusted  the  defence  of  that  province  to  his  ne-  B 
phew  Julian,  who  compelled  the  Alemanni  and  a  portion 
of  the  Franks  to  recross  the  Rhine,  and  assigned  settle- 
ments in  Belgium  to  the  Sajian  Franks,  who  were  vassals 
of  Rome.  The  military  reputation  of  his  nephew,  and 
his  admirable  administration  of  Gaul,  excited  the  envy  of 
the  emperor,  who  was  engaged  in  an  unsuccessful  war 
against  the  Persians,  which  he  made  a  pretence  for  with- 
drawing several  legions  from  Julian.  Instead,  however, 
of  marching  eastwards,  the  Gallic  legions  proclaimed  Jul- 
ian emperor  at  Paris,  and  Constantine  died  in  Cilicia  on 
his  march  homewards  to  oppose  the  nomination. 

J  ulianus  Apostata  (361 — 363),  who  had  been  edu-  685 
cated  in  the  Christian  faith,  was  perverted  to  paganism  by  c 
the  study  of  heathen  literature  and  initiation  into  the 
Greek  mysteries.  He  endeavored  to  re-establish  the  an- 
cient idolatrous  worship,  wrote  against  Christianity,  and 
manifested  his  hatred  of  the  religion  from  which  he  had 
apostatized  by  protecting  the  Jews ;  but  his  attempts  to 
restore  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  were  rendered  abortive  by 
the  bursting  forth  of  flames  out  of  the  ground.  In  an 
expedition  against  the  Persians,  whose  proposals  of  peace 
he  had  rejected,  Julian  crossed  the  Tigris,  and  gained  a 


314  EUROPE.— ROME.     [686 — 689.  §163. 

A  decisive  victoiy  near  Ctesiphon  ;  but  was  mortally  wound- 
ed on  his  return.  He  was  succeeded  by  a  Christian  em- 
peror, 

686  Jovian  us  (363 — 364),  who  accepted  the  conditions  of 
peace  offered  by  the  Persians  (for  thirty  years),  ceded  the 
five  provinces  on  the  other  side  the  Tigris,  which  had 
been  conquered  by  Diocletian,  and  left  Armenia  to  its  fate. 
After  his  death,  which  happened  on  the  homeward  march 
from  Persia,  the  army  chose  the  commander  of  the  house- 
hold troops, 

687  Valentinianus   I.   (364—375),  who   appointed   his 
B  brother  Valens  (364 — 378)  co- regent,  and  assigned  him 

the  eastern  half  of  the  empire,  the  frontiers  of  which  were 
at  that  period  invaded  in  almost  every  direction  by  the 
barbarians.  Thenceforward  the  empire  continued  to  be 
divided  into  eastern  and  western,  except  in  the  last  year 
of  Theodosius,  when  the  two  portions  were  re-united. 

688  Valentinian  I.  was  occupied  during  the  whole  of  his  reign  with 
war  against  the  Alemanni,  who  had  ravaged  Gallia   and  Rhaetia. 
The  enemy  were  compelled  to  re-cross  the  Rhine,  and  for  several 
years  maintained  the  conflict  in  their  own  country.     A  chain  of  for- 
tresees  was  established  on  the  Rhine  from  B&sle  to  Mainz  (Mayence), 
and  another  on  the  Neckar.     Finally,  Valentinian  drove  the  Quadi 
and  Sarmdta,  who  had  invaded  Illyricum,  across  the  Danube,  and 
died  of  hemorrhage,  occasioned  by  the  excitement  of  an  angry  dis- 
cussion with  the  ambassadors  of  the  Quadi.    Britain,  which  had  been 
overrun  by  the  Picts  and  Scots,  was  re-conquered  in  some  sort  by 
Theodosius,  father  of  the  next  emperor,  who  extended  the  frontier 
as' far  as  the  rampart  of  Antoninus,  and  formed  a  new  province, 
named  Valentia,  out  of  the  territory  thus  acquired. 

c  Valens,  as  an  Arian,  persecuted  the  orthodox  party,  and  at  the 
same  time  ill-treated  the  pagan  favorites  of  Julian.  His  incapacity 
and  worthlessness  favored  the  elevation  to  the  throne  of  P  roc  op  ius, 
a  relation  of  Julian,  who  owed  his  election  to  the  bought  votes  of 
the  soldiers  at  Constantinople.  After  maintaining  his  position  for 
nearly  a  year,  Procopius  was  delivered  up  to  his  rival  by  his  own 
soldiers  Wars  of  Valens.  1.  The  West  Goths  or  Thervingians 
(under  their  "  Judge  "  Athanaric)  were  kept  at  bay  for  three  years, 
and  prevented  from  crossing  the  frontier  by  an  irregular  army  col- 
lected from  all  parts  of  the  Roman  provinces  and  sent  across  the 
Danube.  2.  A  war  with  the  Persians  respecting  the  right  of  nomi- 
nation to  the  throne  of  Armenia  and  Iberia  was  not  yet  concluded, 
when  fresh  outbreaks  rendered  the  emperor's  presence  necessary  on 
the  banks  of  the  Danube. 

Commencement    of   the    immigrations.      The 

689  Huns   having   entered   Europe  from   Eastern  Asia  and 


690 — 692.  §  164.]     EUROPE. — ROME.  315 

joined  the  Alani  (between  the  Caspian  and  Black  sea),  (689) 
attacked  the  Goths,  a  partially  christianized  people,  dwel-  A 
ling  between  the  Don  and  the  Danube.     A  portion  of  the 
West  Goths  were  permitted  by  Valens  to  settle  in  Mresia ; 
but  the  severity  of  the  Roman  governor  having  driven 
them  to  revolt,  they  in  company  with  the  Ostro-Goths 
forced  their  way  into  Thrace,  traversed  Macedonia  as  far 
as  Thessaly  and  defeated  Valens  near  Adrian o pie  (378), 
where  the  emperor  and  two-thirds  of  his  soldiers  were 
slain.     His  successor  in  the  east, 

Theodosius  (379 — 395),  terminated  the  war  with  the  690 
Goths  by  assigning  to  whole  tribes  of  that  r  ation  tracts  of  B 
waste  land  in  Moesia,  Thrace,  Phrygia,  and  Lydia.     In 
the  last  year  of  his  reign,  Theodosius  re-united  the  eastern 
and  western  empires,  which  he  again  divided  between  his 
two  sons,  Arcadius  receiving  the  east,  and  Honorius  the 
west,  395. 

In  the  west,  Valentinian  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Gra-  691 
tianus,  and  Valentinianus  II.  a  child  of  seven  years  old-  c 
Gratian  defeated  the  Alemanni  near  Colmar,  and  having  received 
intelligence  of  the  death  of  his  uncle  (Valens),  dispatched  the 
younger  Theodosius  into  the  east,  and  after  he  had  delivered  the 
empire  from  the  Goths,  rewarded  him  with  the  eastern  portion. 
Gratian  having  rendered  himself  odious  by  favoring  the  barbarians, 
the  legions  quartered  in  Britain  called  Maxim  us  to  the  throne, 
and  Gratian  lost  his  life  in  attempting  to  escape  from  his  rival. 
Maximus  reigned  many  years  in  Gaul,  but  having  entered  Italy,  he 
was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by  Theodosius,  to  whom  Valentinian 
II.  had  fled  for  safety.  Thus  Valentinian  became  sole  emperor,  but 
the  management  of  public  affairs  was  intrusted  to  Arbogastes,  a 
Frank,  who  had  conquered  Gaul  for  Theodosius.  An  attempt  on 
the  part  of  the  emperor  to  circumscribe  the  power  of  this  favorite 
occasioned  his  own  assassination.  The  murderer  did  not  however  D 
himself  assume  the  imperial  crown,  but  proclaimed  Eu genius,  the 
magister  ofiiciorum,  who  was  defeated  and  executed  by  Theodosius, 
upon  which  Arbogastes  slew  himself.  Thus  Theodosius  became  sole 
emperor  in  the  year  394. 


§  164.   The  Western  Eoman  Empire — to  its  Fall. 

(395_476.) 

Honorius  (395 — 423),  under  the  guardianship  of  the  692 
Vandal  Stilicho.     Imperial  residence  at  Ravenna  (since 
404). 


316  EUROPE. — ROME.     [693—696.  §  164. 

693  The  two  first  wars  with  the  West  Goths  [Visi- 
A  goths],     Alaric,  king  of  the  West  Goths,  having  invaded 

Macedonia  and  Greece,  and  threatened  Italy  itself,  under 
pretence  that  the  subsidy  granted  by  Theodosius  to  his 
countrymen  had  not  been  paid,  Stilicho  unexpectedly  ap- 
peared with  a  small  fleet  off  Peloponnesus,  whereupon 
Alaric  withdrew  to  Illyria.  Having  recruited  his  army, 
the  Gothic  prince  entered  Upper  Italy  with  his  whole  force, 
but  was  defeated  by  Stilicho  at  Pollentia  ancl  Verona,  and 
again  retired  into  Illyria. 

694  Several  German  tribes  who  had  also  imaded  Italy  under 
B  the  command  of  Radagais,  were  permitted  by  Stilicho  to 

advance  as  far  as  Florence,  where  he  blockaded  them 
with  the  assistance  of  other  barbarians,  and  compelled  the 
greater  part  of  them  to  surrender  at  discretion. 

695  Stilicho  having  recalled  the  legions  quartered  in  Britain 
and  on  the  Rhine  for  the  protection  of  Italy,  the  German 
tribes  overran  the  western  provinces  without  opposition, 
the  Alemanni  settling  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  the  Franks 
in  north-western  Gaul,  the  Burgundians  in  the  districts 
bordering  on  the  Jura,  and  the  Vandals,  Alans,  and  Suevi 
in  Spain,  whilst  the  tracts  of  country  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danube,  which  the  invader  had  quitted,  were  occupied  by 
the  Gepidse,  Sarmatce,  and  especially  by  the  Huns,  who 
took  possession  of  Pannonia. 

696  The  third  war  with  the  West  Goths.     Stilicho 
c  having  persuaded  the  senate  to  grant  Alaric  an  indemnifi- 
cation for  sums  expended  in  abortive  preparations  for  a 
common  expedition  (against  Constantinople  ?),  was  accused 
by  Olympius  (a  favorite  of  the  emperor)  of  trafficking 
with   the   barbarian,   and   suffered  death.      Alaric,  who 
probably  had  never  received  the  subsidy  voted  to  him, 
now  advanced  into  Italy,  and  blockaded  Rome  ;  but  con- 
sented to  raise  the  siege  on  payment  of  a  large  sum  of 
money  by  the  inhabitants.     The  court  at  Ravenna  having 
refused  his  claim  to  rank  as  the  first  general  in  the  service 
of  Honorius,  Alaric  persuaded  the  praef.  urbi  Attalus  to 
accept  the  imperial  dignity ;    but  soon  deposed  him,  and 

D  resumed  his  negotiations  with  Honorius.  An  ambuscade 
near  Ravenna  occasioned  another  siege  of  Rome,  which 
was  taken  and  given  up  to  plunder  during  six  (?)  days  in 
the  year  410.  Alaric  died  at  Consentia,  on  an  expedition 


697,  698.  §  164.]       EUROPE. — ROME.  317 

into    Lower    Italy.       His    brother-in-law    and   successor  (696) 
Ataulphus,  concluded  a  peace  with  Honorius  (whose  sister  A 
Placidia  he  married),  and  led  the  West  Goths  into  Gaul 
(in  412),  and  Spain  (414). 

The  western  empire  was  now  tottering  to  its  fall — for  not  only  697 
were  Gaul  and  Spain  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  barbarian 
invaders,  but  several  rival  emperors  were  striving  with  each  other 
and  with  Honorius  for  possession  of  the  remaining  portion.  An 
attempt  was  also  made  by  the  governor  of  Africa  to  depose  Honorius 
by  landing  in  Umbria,  but  his  whole  army  was  cut  to  pieces  in  a 
single  engagement.  Constantius,  an  Illyrian,  who  had  subdued  the 
usurpers  in  Gaul,  held  the  reins  of  government  during  the  last  years 
of  Honorius,  married  Placidia,  the  emperor's  sister,  and  was  in- 
vested with  the  imperial  dignity  ;  but  died  a  short  time  before  the 
decease  of  Honorius. 

Honorius  (after  the   short   usurpation   of   his  secretary  Johannes  B 
(423 — 425),  who  was  never  recognized  by  the  court  of  Constanti- 
nople) was  succeeded  by  his  son 

Valentinianus  III.  (425 — 455),  a  child  of  six  years  698 
old,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother  Placidia,  who 
conferred  on  Aetius  the  command-in-chief  of  the  army 
and  the  presidency  of  her  council  of  state.  The  intrigues 
of  this  minister  involved  his  mistres  in  a  dispute  with 
Bonifacius,  governor  of  Africa,  whom  he  advised  the 
empress  to  recall  in  order  to  test  his  fidelity,  warning  the 
governor  at  the  same  time  not  to  obey  the  command.  On  c 
receiving  this  intelligence,  Bonifacius,  whose  province  was 
infested  by  marauding  African  hordes,  called  in  Genseric, 
the  fierce  and  cruel  king  of  the  Vandals.  The  barbarians 
who  landed  in  Africa  in  consequence  of  this  invitation 
soon  forgot  the  distinction  between  friend  and  foe;  and 
after  ravaging  the  whole  northern  coast,  established  a 
Vandalic  pirate  state,  of  which  Carthage  was  the  capital. 
Mauretania  and  Numidia  remained  faithful  to  the  Roman 
empire,  but  the  rest  of  the  province  was  entirely  subject 
to  the  barbarians,  whose  fleets  rendezvoused  in  the  African 
ports,  and  rendered  the  navigation  of  the  Mediterranean 
exceedingly  insecure.  Britain,  since  the  departure  of  the  D 
Roman  legions,  had  been  torn  by  intestine  divisions  and 
harassed  by  the  repeated  incursions  of  hostile  tribes.  In 
his  distress  one  of  the  British  princes  called  in  some  bands 
of  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes,  who  landed  under 
Hengist  and  Horsa  in  the  year  445  (?),  expelled  the  Picts 


318  EUROPE.— ROME.      [699,  700.  §  164. 

(698)  and  Scots,  and  settled  in  Britain,  where  they  gradually 
A  established  the  seven  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms.  Genseric, 
king  of  the  Vandals,  formed  an  alliance  against  the  West 
Goths  and  Latins  with  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  who 
invaded  Gaul  with  an  enormous  force,  composed  of  all  the 
nations  subjected  to  his  dominion  from  the  Volga  to  the 
Rhine.  This  army  was  defeated  fey  Aetius,  in  conjunction 
with  the  West  Goths  (under  Theodoric  I.),  the  Burgun- 
dians,  and  a  portion  of  the  Franks  (under  Meroveeus),  in 
the  Catalaunian  Fields  (near  Chalons-sur-Marne),  in 
the  year  451 .  Attila  then  invaded  Italy,  where  he  sacked 
Aquileia,  and  ravaged  the  plains  of  Lombardy  northwards 
from  the  Po,  driving  a  part  of  the  inhabitants  to  tfee 
lagunes  of  the  Adriatic  sea,  where  they  founded  the  city 
B  of  Venice.  An  attack  on  the  capital  was  averted  by  the 
intercession  of  a  Roman  deputation,  headed  by  Bishop  Leo. 
The  sudden  death  of  Attila  in  the  following  year  (453)  was 
succeeded  by  the  dissolution  of  the  Hunnish  empire  (com- 
pare B.  II.  §  6).  Valentinian  murdered  Aetius  (who 
seems  to  have  manifested  a  desire  to  secure  the  imperial 
throne  to  his  family  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  with  the 
emperor's  daughter),  and  was  himself  openly  assassinated 
on  the  Campus  Martius  by  two  senators,  friends  of  Aetius, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  senator  Procopius  Maximus,  whose 
wife  he  had  debauched. 

699  Maximus   (455)  was   called   to   the   throne   by   the 
c  soldiers,  whose  support  he  had  in  all  probability  secured 

previously  to  the  death  of  the  late  emperor.  The  widowed 
empress,  Eudoxia,  indignant  at  being  compelled  to  marry 
Maximus,  avenged  herself  by  calling  in  Genseric,  king 
of  the  Vandals,  who  entered  the  Tiber  with  his  fleet, 
plundered  Rome,  ravaged  the  whole  line  of  coast  from  the 
Tiber  to  Naples,  and  carried  off  the  principal  Romans  to 
Africa,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  large  sums  for  their 
ransom.  Maximus  in  attempting  to  fly  was  slain  by  his 
own  soldiers. 

700  After  his  death  the  empire,  which  now  comprehended 
D  little  more  than  Italy  itself,  was  ruled  by  eight  emperors, 

who  followed  one  another  in  rapid  succession.  Of  this 
number,  the  six  first  were  entirely  dependent  on  the 
Gothic  chief,  Ricimer,  commandant  of  the  foreign  troops 
in  the  service  of  Rome ;  nor  was  the  authority  of  any  one 


701,  702.    §  164.]          EUROPE.— ROME.  310 

of  them  respected  beyond  the  limits  of  the  district  in  which  A 
he  actually  resided. 

1.  The  immediate  successor  of  Maximus  was  Avitus  (455,  456),  7QJ 
Commander-in-chief  of  the  Roman  troops  in   Gaul,  who  rendered 
himself  contemptible  by  his  excesses,  and  lost  his  throne  and  life  in 
consequence    of   a   conspiracy.      After   an    interregnum    of    seven 
months,    during    which    the  Greek  emperor    (Marcianus)    was   re- 
garded as  regent,  the  imperial  title  was  assumed  by 

2.  Majorianus,  commander-in-chief  in  the  west,  who  seems  to 
have  recovered  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain  in  a  war  with  the  West 
Goths.      During   his    reign   a  Roman  fleet   fitted    out    against   the 
Yumlals  was  burnt  by  Genseric,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  almost 
yearly  invasions  of  those  barbarians  were  terminated  by   the  con- 
clusion of  a  peace  with  their  leader.     In  consequence  of  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  Majorian  to  circumscribe  the  influence  of  Ricimer, 
he  was  deposed  and  murdered  by  that  general,  who  now  exercised 
sovereign  power  in  the  name  of  his  puppet 

3.  Livius  Severus  (461 — 465),  but  only  in  Italy,  Marcellinus  u 
refusing  to  recognize  his  authority  in  Dalmatia,  and  ^Egidius  (father 
of  Syagrius)  in  Gaul       After  the   death   of  Severus,  the  western 
empire  was  governed  by  Ricimer,  in  the  name  of  the  Greek  emperor 
Leo,  who  at  last,  with  the  consent  of  Ricimer,  nominated 

4  Anthemius  (467 — 472).  A  large  fleet  fitted  out  by  this 
emperor,  in  conjunction  with  Leo,  for  the  re-conquest  of  Africa,  was 
utterly  destroyed  by  Genseric.  Anthemius  having  quarrelled  with 
Ricimer,  the  latter  caused 

5.  Anicius  Olybrius  to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  took  posses- 
sion of  Rome  in  his  name,  and  put  Anthemius  to  death  ;  but  soon 
afterwards  himself  died,  together  with  Olybrius,  of  a  pestilential 
disease. 

6    Glycerius,  who  had  assumed   the  imperial  dignity  without  C 
the  sanction  of  the  Greek  emperor,  was  soon  compelled  to  resign  his 
throne  to 

7.  Julius  Nepos,  and  he  to  his  general  Orestes,  who  proclaimed 
his  son 

8.  Romulus  Augustulus. 

Since  the  death  of  Ricimer,  Italy,  instead  of  being  702 
ruled  by  one  sovereign,  had  been  divided  between 
Odoacer  and  Orestes,  each  of  whom  exercised  supreme 
authority  in  the  district  occupied  by  his  army.  Scarcely 
had  Orestes  placed  his  son  Romulus  Augustulus  on  the 
imperial  throne,  when  he  was  besieged  in  Pavia  by  an 
army  composed-  of  Heruli,  Rugii,  and  other  German 
tribes  under  the  command  of  Odoacer,  who  carried  the 
city  by  storm,  and  having  put  Orestes  to  death,  deposed 
his  son  Romulus,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king 
of  Italy  in  the  year  476. 

15 


320  EUROPE.— ROME.      [703,  704.  §  165 


§  165.  Religion,  fyc.  of  the  Romans. 

703  1.  Religion. 

A  The  Romans  were  accustomed  to  ascribe  the  establish- 
ment of  their  religion  to  their  king,  Numa  Pompilius,  to 
whom  they  also  attributed  the  formation  of  the  sacerdotal 
colleges,  and  the  publication  of  the  most  ancient  religious 
records.  To  the  original  Sabino-Latin  clement  of  the 
Roman  national  religion  was  soon  added  a  Tuscan,  and 
under  the  later  kings  the  influence  of  Greece  was  also 
manifested  in  the  adaptation  of  her  representations  of  the 
gods  and  religious  ceremonies  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Roman  faith,  which  they  served  to  develope  rather  than 

B  to  destroy.  Thus  men  believed  concerning  Jupiter,  Juno, 
and  Minerva,  all  that  was  related  by  the  Greeks  of  Zeus, 
and  Here,  and  Athene,  as  far  as  that  belief  was  consistent 
with  the  Roman  character  and  history.  The  decline  of 
the  Roman  religion  at  the  commencement  of  the  first 
century,  before  Christ,  may  be  attributed  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  mystic  worships  of  Egypt  and  of  Asia,  with 
their  dark  superstitions,  and  to  the  distinction  established 
between  the  popular  religion  and  that  of  the  philosophers 
and  poets.  In  the  last  years  of  the  republic  there  seems 
to  have  been  a  complete  dissolution  of  all  religions  as  well 

c  as  political  relations.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the 
earlier  emperors  to  check  the  propagation  of  strange 
doctrines,  idolatry  and  irreligion  continued  to  increase, 
whilst  on  the  other  hand  Christianity,  in  spite  of  ten 
fearful  persecutions,  steadily  extended  its  sphere  of  action, 
until  its  establishment  as  the  state  religion  by  Constantine 
the  Great. 

704  The  chief  Deities  of  the  Romans. 

a  The  three  Capitoline  divinities.  1.  Jupiter,  as  prince  of  the 
air,  is  the  author  of  all  changes  in  the  atmosphere  ;  rain  and  storm, 
D  thunder  and  lightning.  He  is  supreme  among  the  gods,  and  the 
most  powerful  agent  in  the  direction  of  human  affairs  (optimus 
maximus),  the  protector  of  probity  and  virtue,  the  guardian  of  oaths, 
landmarks,  and  all  obligations  which  are  based  on  fidelity  and  credit. 
Among  the  many  festivals  celebrated  in  his  honor,  the  most  re- 
markable were,  the  Capitoline,  or  great  Roman  Games,  in  the  circus 
maximus,  and  the  Feriae  Latinaj  on  the  Alban  mount.  2.  Juno,  the 
queen  of  heaven,  afforded  the  same  protection  to  the  female  sex  as 
Jupiter  to  the  male,  and  was  the  especjal  patroness  of  all  relations 


705 — 710.  §  165.]  EUROPE. — ROME.  321 

founded  on  marriage  ;  she  accompanied  the  woman  from  the  cradle  (704) 
to  the  tomb,  and  befriended  her  in  all  the  important  occurrences  of  .4 
life.     3.    Minerva  was  the  patroness  of  arts  and  manufactures. 
She  bestowed  on  the  housewife  the  dexterity  requisite  for  her  handi- 
work, inspired  the  warrior  with  cunning,  prudence,  and  courage, 
and  imparted  creative  energy  to  the  artist  and  the  poet. 

b.  Of  the  planets  only  the  two  most  important,  the  sun  (sol)  and  705 
moon  (luna)  were  invoked  as  deities.     The  earth  was  personified 
under  the  name  of  Tellus. 

c.  Deities  of  the  lower  world. — The  infernal  empire  (like  its  ruling  706 
divinity,  was  termed  Orcus,  Dis  (i.  e.  dives).     To  him  belongs  in 

all  probability  the  name  Consus,  and  the  festival  Consualia.  His 
consort,  the  queen  of  this  shadowy  realm,  was  called  Libitlna. 

d.  Deities  of  the  elements. — 1.  Of  water:  Neptunus.  2.  Of  fire:  707 
Vu  lean  us,  the  god  of  furnaces  and  forges;  and  Vesta,  or  the  fire  B 
of  the  hearth,  who  was  honored   by  the  women  in  every  private 
house  at  each  meal,  as  well  as  publicly  in  her  temple,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Vestal  virgins  (see  712,  5). 

e.  Deities  presiding  over  agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle. —  7Q8 
The  introduction  of  agriculture  was  ascribed  by  the   Latins  to   their 
ancient  king  Saturn  us ;  to  whom  they  also  attributed  the  first  esta- 
blishment of  civilization  (hence  the  golden  age).      His  wife   Ops 

(t.  c.  wealth)  was  worshipped  on  earth  under  the  title  of  Demeter. 
The  Saturnalia,  or  feast  in  honor  of  Saturn,  as  guardian  of  all  fruits 
in  gardens  and  fields,  was  the  general  harvest  festival  especially 
designed  for  the  recreation  of  slaves.  To  these  Latin  rural  deities 
were  added,  about  B.C.  500,  three  Grecian,  viz.  Ceres,  Liber,  and 
Libera,  who  had  their  temples  and  feasts  (Cerealia)  in  common. 
The  protectress  of  the  flocks  was  Pales,  whose  feast,  the  Palilia,  C 
was  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  building  of  Rome,  probably  be- 
cause Romulus  established  her  worship  when  he  founded  the  city. 
Mars,  also,  their  highest  divinity  next  to  Jupiter,  and  the  father  of 
their  founder  by  a  vestal  virgin,  was  honored  by  the  ancient  Latius, 
not  only  as  the  god  of  war,  but  as  the  patron  of  agriculture  and  all 
other  industrial  pursuits  of  the  male  sex.  On  the  Campus  Martius, 
which  was  dedicated  to  him,  were  held  races  twice  a  year,  and  every 
four  years  a  census  of  the  Roman  citizens.  (For  the  Salii,  see 
712,  6.) 

f.  The  oracular  deities  of  the  Latins  were — 1.  Their  deified  king  709 
Faun  us,  whose  responses  were  given  in  dreams,  or  by  mysterious 
voices  in  forests.     2.   Fauna,  a  daughter,  sister,  or  wife  of  Faunus.  D 
This  deity,  who  was  known  among  mortals  as  the  "  good  goddess," 
communicated  her  oracles  exclusively  to  females,  as  Faunus  to  males. 

3.  Carmentisand  the  C  amen  as,  prophetic  nymphs,  among  whom 
the  most  renowned  was  Egeria,  the  instructress  of  king  Numa.  The 
worship  of  Apollo  was  introduced  at  a  later  period,  but  that  of 
Diana  seems  to  have  been  established  contemporaneously  with  the 
settlement  of  the  Sabines  and  Latins  as  plebeians  at  Rome. 

g.  Deities  presiding  over  physical  and  moral  events. — 1.  Janus,  7JQ 
who  directs  the  commencement  of  every  undertaking,  opens  and  closes 

all  things  ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  every  year,  month,  and  day,  be- 
holds with  his  double  countenance  both  the  past  and  future.  His 


322  EUROPE.— ROME.        [711,  712.    §  165. 

(710)  principal  festival  was  on  New  Year's  day.  At  the  commencement  of 
A  a  war  the  temple  of  Janus,  founded  by  Numa  (strictly  speaking,  a 
mere  gate),  which  was  kept  closed  in  time  of  peace,  was  solemnly 
opened  by  the  consul.  2.  The  Pare®,  or  goddesses  of  fate,  who 
indicate  the  unchangeable  destiny  of  man,  as  settled  at  his  birth,  in 
contradistinction  to — 3.  Fortuna,  or  chance,  the  directress  of 
variable  events,  to  whom  men  addressed  themselves  at  every  important 
crisis  of  their  lives.  4.  The  worship  oi  Venus,  an  ancient  national 
divinity  of  the  Latins,  derived  its  importance  from  the  identification 
of  that  goddess  with  the  Greek  Aphrodite.  5.  Divine  honors  were 
also  paid  to  personifications  of  abstract  ideas  ;  such  as  Salus,  Pax, 
Concordia,  Libertas,  Felicitas,  Faustitas,  Bonus  Eventus,  Juventus, 
Victoria,  Terminus,  and  especially  to  moral  qualities  ;  as  Mens, 
B  Pietas,  Pudicitia,  Virtus,  Honos,  Spes,  and,  above  all,  Fides.  Amor, 
Cupido,  and  Voluptas,  were  known  only  through  the  Greeks  and  the 
poets.  6.  Among  the  deities  of  t  r  a  d  e  and  gain  the  most  important 
was  Mercurius  (from  mercari).  7.  B  e  1 1  o  n  a  was  the  goddess 
of  war.  8.  A  temple  was  first  erected  to  Roma  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus. 

7U  h.  Life,  death,  and  existence  after  death  are  severally  represented  in 
the  Roman  religion  by — 1.  The  Genii,  or  guardian  spirits,  who 
attend  men  as  constant  companions  from  their  birth  to  the  hour  of 
their  death.  2.  The  Manes,  or  souls  of  the  dead  in  general. 
3.  The  L  a  r  e  s,  a  sort  of  saints,  who  either  protected  the  common- 
wealth, like  the  great  Greek  heroes  (such  as  Romulus,  Remus,  Qui- 
rinus,  Numa,  Tatius,  &c .),  or  were  worshipped  as  the  guardians  of 
private  families.  The  Lares  were  also  distinguished  according  to 
the  places  in  which  they  were  supposed  to  exercise  their  power  ;  and 
in  this  point  of  view  the  most  important  were  the  House-Lares,  or 
Penates. 

712      The  principal  priesthoods. 

a.  The  priestly  colleges. — 1.  The  P  o  n  t  i  f  i  c  e  s,  four,  eight,  fifteen, 
sixteen,  chosen  for  life  by  the  college,  were  charged  with  the  super- 
intendence of  public  and  private  worship,  as  well  as  the  management 
of  the  entire  priesthood  and  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  law. 
The  president  of  this  college,  the  pontifex  maximus,  who  was  chosen 
by  the  people,  regulated  the  calendar,  announced  the  festivals,  and 
wrote  the  Annales  Maximi.  2.  The  Augur es,  three,  four,  nine, 
fifteen,  chosen  also  for  life  by  co-optatio,  ascertained  the  will 
of  the  gods  on  all  public  questions  by  means  of— a.  Atmospheric 
phenomena,  as  thunder,  lightning,  the  shooting  of  stars,  &c.  ;  6.  the 
flight  and  cry  of  birds  ;  c.  the  manner  in  which  certain  sacred  aniinnls 
D  devoured  their  food.  The  inspection  of  victims  was  conducted  by 
the  Harusplces  (foreigners  hired  for  that  purpose).  Auspicia  are 
those  signs  which  present  themselves  unsought ;  auguria  those  which 
are  vouchsafed  in  answer  to  prayer.  3.  The  inspectors  of  the 
Sibylline  books,  two,  ten,  fifteen,  who,  on  important  occasions 
and  in  times  of  great  difficulty,  were  empowered  by  the  senate  to 
consult  (in  presence  of  the  chief  magistrates)  the  books  purchased,  < 
according  to  tradition,  by  Tarquinius  Superbus.  4.  The  twenty 
F  e  t  i  a  1  e  s,  appointed  by  Numa,  or  Ancus  Martius,  for  the  purpose  ot 
proclaiming  war,  and  concluding  treaties  of  peace  and  alliance  in  the 


713 — 717.  §  165.]  EUROPE. — ROME.  323 

name  of  the  Roman  people.     5.  The  Vestal  Virgins  (four;  from  (712) 
the  time  of  Tarq.  Priscus  six),  subject  to  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  by  A 
whom  they  were  chosen  between  the  ages  of  six  and  ten.     They 
were  required  to  continue  in  the  service  of  the  temple  thirty  years ; 
of  which  the  first  ten  were  employed  in  learning  their  duty,  the  next 
ten  in  discharging  it,  and  the  last  in  instructing  others.     Their  most 
important  duties  we~e  the  keeping  watch  over  the  Palladium,  and 
maintaining  the  sacred  fire.     6.  The  Salii  Palatini,  established  by 
Numa,  as  guardians  of  the  shield  of  Mars  (anclle),  which  fell  down 
from  heaven,  and  of  the  eleven  made  in  imitation  of  it. 

b.   The  priests  of  particular  deities  were  termed  Flamines,  and  713 
their  wives  Flaminicae.     They  were  distinguished  as  Flamines  ma- 
jores  and  minores.     To  this  order  belonged  the  priests  of  the  three 
principal   guardian  deities  of  Rome,  Jupiter,  Mars,  and   Quirinus 
(Flamen  Dialis,  Martian's,  Quirfnalis) .     After  the  expulsion  of  the  B 
Tarquins,  the  duty  of  offering  public  sacrifices,  which  had  previously 
been  discharged  by  the  kings,  was  intrusted  to  a  rex  sacrorum,  or 
rex  sacrificulus. 

M odes  of  worship.  714 

The  holy  places  were  either  mere  consecrated  inclosures  (fana, 
delubra)  or  temples  (templa,  redes,),  with  two  altars;  one  of  which 
(ara)  was  intended  for  libations  and  incense,  and  the  other  (generally 
termed  altare)  for  burnt  sacrifices.  The  sacred  usages  consisted  of 
prayers,  vows,  consecrations,  purifications,  sacrifices,  feasts,  and  public 
games. 

2.  The  art  of  war  was  more  successfully  cultivated  715 
by  the  Romans  than  by  any  other  nation  of  antiquity. 

a.  Land  force. — Every  Roman  citizen,  from  his  six-  c 
teenth  to  bis  forty-fifth  year,  was  bound,  or,  in  the  language 
of  the  best  days  of  the  republic,  privileged  to  perform 
military  duty  in  the  field  ;  the  capite  censi  and  freedmen 
alone  being  exempt,  until  the  time  of  Marius.  In  the 
arrangement  of  the  legions,  they  adopted,  until  the  time  of 
the  Punic  wars,  the  principle  of  the  centurial  constitution 
of  Servius  Tullius. 

The  legion  consisted  originally  of  three  divisions  of  1200  men,  of  716 
which  the  two  first  were  heavily  and  the  third  lightly  armed.  At  a  D 
later  period  (from  the  time  of  Camillus)  there  were  five  divisions, 
or  cohorts  (hastati,  principes,  triarii,  rorarii,  accensi)  ;  each  cohort 
consisting  of  fifteen  maniples,  each  maniple  of  two  centuries,  a  Roman 
and  Latin,  and  each  century  of  thirty  men,  besides  the  centurion  ;  in 
all  4500  men  (at  a  later  period  6000).  To  each  legion  was  attached 
a  body  of  cavalry,  generally  300  strong.  Two  legions  composed,  in 
most  instances,  a  consular  army.  The  wings  of  the  main  army  were 
covered  by  the  auxiliaries,  who  were  organized  in  the  same  manner, 
but  with  a  much  greater  proportion  of  cavalry. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  republic,  the  citizens,  and  at  a  717 
later  period  the  allies,  were  excused  from  military  service, 


324  EUROPE. — ROME.      [718,  719.  §  165. 

(717)  which  was  performed  by  mercenary  troops  from  various 
A  countries.  The  emperors  organized  a  standing  body-guard 
(the  ten  cohortes  praetorianae).  The  army  was  commanded 
at  different  periods  by  the  kings,  consuls,  dictators,  prae- 
tors, and  emperors,  to  whom  a  quaestor  and  a  certain 
number  of  legati  were  assigned  as  lieutenants.  At  the 
head  of  each  legion  were  the  tribuni  militum,  and  under 
them  the  centuriones.  Constantino  the  Great  placed  in 
command  of  his  entire  force  a  magister  perditum  and  ma- 
gister  equitum.  Some  sort  of  remuneration  seems  to  have 
been  granted  under  the  kings,  but  the  practice  of  giving 
regular  pay  to  each  legionary  was  not  introduced  until  a 
short  time  before  the  Veientine  war  (compare  page  236,  D). 
B  Rewards  were  also  given  in  the  shape  of  participation  in 
the  booty,  crowns  of  different  descriptions,  weapons  of 
honor,  and  after  the  civil  wars  allotments  of  land,  the 
title  of  imperator  for  the  Commander-in-chief,  solemn 
thanksgivings,  and,  above  all,  the  triumph  (or  at  least  the 
ovatio). 

718  b.  The  maritime  force. — (For  its  origin,  see  page  250,  c.) 
The  Roman  fleets  consisted  of  vessels  of  burden,  light 
transports,  and  from  100  to  300  ships  of  war,  with  three 
or  five  banks  of  oars,  manned  with  citizens  of  the  lowest 
class,  freedmen,  and  foreigners,  who  served  either  as  sea- 
men or  marines. 

719  3.  Literature. 

c  The  history  of  Roman  literature  may  be  divided  into 
four  periods ;  of  which  the  first  begins  with  Livius  Andro- 
nicus,  about  240  years  before  Christ.  Of  the  period  an- 
tecedent to  that  date  we  possess  nothing  beyond  a  few 
religious  hymns,  oracular  responses,  table  songs,  a  kind  of 
popular  drama  (the  Atellanae),  some  meagre  chronicles, 
and  fragments  of  laws  and  inscriptions.  The  foundation 
of  Roman  literature,  properly  so  called,  was  laid  in  the 
year  240  in  the  adaptation  of  some  Greek  poetical  works, 
which  were  scon  followed  by  similar  attempts  in  prose. 

D  The  second  period,  from  the  death  of  Sulla  to  that  of 
Augustus,  was  the  golden  age  of  Roman  literature,  which 
flourished  under  the  influence  of  Greek  civilization  and 
learning.  Eloquence  especially  developed  itself  as  an  in- 
dependent study,  and  pervaded  every  department  of  lite- 
rature, which  assumed  in  consequence  a  decidedly  rhe- 


720,  721.  §  165.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  325 

torical  character.     The  different  kinds  of  poetry  (with  the  (719) 
exception  of  satire)  were  formed  on  Greek  models,  the  A 
subjects  being  borrowed  from  the  Greek  mythology,  and 
the  lack  of  invention  supplied  by  elaborate  diction. 

The  silver  age,  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  was  distinguished  by  an  attempt  to  surpass  the 
elegance  and  sublimity  of  the  classical  period  by  means  of 
exaggeration,  refinement,  and  rhetorical  bombast.  This 
depraved  taste  was  not  merely  displayed  in  poetry,  which 
had  now  lost  its  simplicity  and  natural  character,  and  in 
eloquence,  the  chief  employment  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
groundwork  of  all  scientific  instruction  ;  but  pervaded  all 
their  studies,  and  gave  to  the  works  of  this  period  a  de- 
clamatory character. 

In  the  last,  or  brazen  age,  from  A.  D.  410  to  476,  the  B 
belles  lettres  [rejected  almost  all  extraneous  support,  and] 
daily  became  more  worthless  and  insignificant :  subtle  re- 
finement, exaggeration,  and  the  most  ridiculous  bombast  in 
language  and  expression,  now  reigned  in  every  department 
of  literature,  and  drove  good  taste  entirely  from  the  field. 

A.  Poetry.  720 

a.  The  Epos.     The  first  attempts  of  the  Romans  in 
Epic  poetry  consisted  partly  of  translations  from  Greek 
poems,  especially  those  of  Homer,  and  partly  versified 
narratives  of  the  wars  and  heroic  deeds  of  the  republic. 
Thus  Ennius  wrote  an  epic  history  of  Rome  from  the 
most  ancient  times  to  those  in  which  he  lived  (Annales, 
eighteen  books),  introducing  at  the  same  time  the  Hex- 
ameter metre  into  Roman  literature.      A  more  intimate  c 
acquaintance  with  the  correct  and  polished  productions  of 
the  Alexandrian  school  directed  epic  poetry  into  two  princi- 
pal channels,  viz.  the  historical  and  didactic  epos.     Both 
these  departments  were   represented   by  P.   Virgilius 
Maro  (B.  c.  f  19),  and  the  didactic  by   Ovidius  Naso 
(A.  D.  f  17),  in  his  Ars  amandi,  Remedia  amoris,  Meta- 
morphoseon  libri,  and  Fastorum  libri. 

b.  The  drama. — In  tragedy  the  Roman  writers (Livius  721 
Andronicus,  Cn.  Naevius,  Ennius,  Pacuvius,  Attius,  and  D 
in  Nero's  time  L.  Annaeus  Seneca)  distinguished  them- 
selves merely  as  polished  translators  or  imitators  of  Greek 
models.      In  comedy,  also,  they  confined  themselves  at 
first  to  the  imitation  or  free  translation  of  the  so-called 


326  EUROPE.  —  ROME.     [722—726.  §  165. 

(721)  New  Comedy  of  the  Greeks  ;  as  we  find  in  the  instances 

A  of  M.  Aldus  Plautus(f  184)  and  P.  Terentius  Afer 

(Terence:  f 


That  they  had,  however,  also  a  Roman  drama,  strictly  so  called,  is 
evident  from  the  distinction  between  comcedia  togata  and  pa  Ilia  ta  ; 
the  former  being  the  national  drama,  the  latter  an  imitation  of  the 
Greek  models.  One  form  of  the  comcedia  togata  was  the  Mimes, 
which  represented,  like  the  Atellan  farces,  only  scenes  of  Roman 
life,  but  in  more  polished  language,  and  with  more  of  dramatic  unity. 
By  degrees  language  ceased  to  be  essential  to  these  Mimes,  which 
degenerated  into  a  mere  exhibition  of  gesticulation,  with  dancing  and 
music,  termed  Pantomimus. 

722  c.    Lyric  poetry,  which  developed  itself  at  the  period 
when  Greek  influence  was  predominant,  always  retained 
in  some  degree  its  character  of  being  a  mere  imitation. 
The  most  remarkable  performances  in  this  department  are 
the  elegiac  poems  of  Catullus,  Tibullus,  Propertius, 
Ovid,  and  the  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace  (B.  c.  f  8). 

723  d.    Satire  is  a  species  of  poetry,  purely  Roman,  origi- 
B  nating   in  an  ancient    popular  theatrical    representation, 

termed  Satura,  which  was  raised  by  C.  Lucilius  to  the  rank 
of  a  literary  production.  A  more  severe  as  well  as  polished 
character  was  given  to  satirical  poetry  by  Q.  Horatius 
Flaccus  [Horace],  who  good  humoredly  exposes  the  per- 
versities and  absurdities  of  vice  ;  whilst  his  graver  suc- 
cessors (in  the  first  century  after  Christ),  Persius  and 
Juvenal  is  [Juvenal],  lash  with  extreme  severity  the  gross 
immoralities  of  their  time. 

724  e-  The  epigram  was  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  the 
c  only  complete  collection  which  we  possess  of  such  poems  is  that  of 

Martialis  [Martial]. 

725  f'  ^ne  f°ble  and  ^yl  found  few  admirers.     P  h  se  d  r  u  s  published 
a  Latin  imitation  of  the  Greek  fables  of  ^Esop,  and  Virgil  of  the 
Idyls  of  Theocritus. 

726  B.  Prose. 

a.  History  (see  page  198). 

D  b.  Oratory  was  the  most  distinguished  and  influential 
branch  of  Roman  literature.  At  an  early  period  Roman 
generals  and  statesmen,  such  as  Brutus,  Camillus.  the  elder 
Cato  (in  more  than  150  speeches),  the  younger  Scipio  Afri- 
canus,  and  the  younger  Gracchus,  were  wont  to  influence 
"their  con  temporaries  by  the  force  of  natural  eloquence,  long 
before  the  introduction  (in  defiance  of  repeated  decrees  of 


727,  728.  §  165.]      EUROPE.— ROME.  327 

the  senate)  of  a  regular  system  of  instruction  in  oratory,  (726) 
by  Greek  rhetoricians.     From  this  period  a  rhetorical  and  A 
philosophical  education  was  the  surest  road  to  honor  and 
influence.    Among  the  distinguished  orators  who  displayed 
their  talents  in  the  forum  were  Crassus,  Antonius  Orator, 
Hortensius,  and  above  all  M.  Tullius  Cicero  (106 — 43), 
the  great  master  of  Roman  eloquence. 

With  the  decline  of  the  republic,  oratory  lost  its  influence  over  the  727 
government,  and  gradually  confined  its  exhibitions  to  the  courts  of  B 
justice,  and  schools  of  rhetoric.     The  orations  pronounced  in  honor 
of  the  later  emperors,  in  imitation  of  the  panegyricus  of  Pliny  on 
Trajan,  display  it  in  its  most  debased  character.    Besides  the  practice, 
the  theory  and  history  of  eloquence  were  also  taught  (the  former,  in 
some  measure,  according  to  Greek  systems),  principally  by  Cicero 
and  Quinctilian. 

c.  The  letters  of  C  i  c  e  r  o  and  of  his  imitator,  the  younger  Pliny, 
furnish  us  with  much  valuable  information  concerning  the  domestic 
life  of  the  Romans,  and  the  character  of  their  contemporaries. 

d.  In  philosophy  the  Romans  confined  themselves  to  the  c 
study  of  the  various  Greek  systems   (especially  those  of 
the  Academy,  of  Epicurus,  and  of  the  Stoa),  and  their 
eclectic  application  to  practical  life,  especially  as  regarded 
oratory,  without  attempting   the   formation  of  any  inde- 
pendent system.     The  philosophical  writings  of  Cicero 
entitle  him  to  the  highest  praise  as  the  introducer  and  dis- 
seminator of  the  Greek  philosophy  at  Rome. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  monarchy,  the  most  attractive  system  726 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  the  stoa  [or  the  Stoic  Philosophy],  to 
which  Seneca,  the  tutor  and  counsellor  of  Nero,  manifests  a  de- k 
cided  inclination  in  his  numerous  writings.     In  the  second  century, 
stoicism,  which  still  found  a  worthy  admirer  in  the  emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius,  was  compelled  to  give  place  to  Neoplatonism. 

e.  Under  this  head  we  may  also  class  natural  philosophy.    A  most  D 
valuable  attempt  to  add  to  the  results  of  Alexandrian  learning  by 
discoveries  of  his  own,  was  made  by  the  elder  P 1  i  n  y  in  his  great 
encyclopaedia,  to  which  he  gave  the  title  of  Historia  naturalis.     In 
the  other  practical  sciences  Rome  possesses  few  writers  of  reputation. 

/.  Jurisprudence.  At  a  very  early  period  the  Roman  jurists  (jure 
consulti),  began  to  frame  a  system  of  legal  science  by  examining  the 
existing  laws,  reducing  them  to  first  principles,  collecting  precedents 
and  authoritative  legal  maxims,  &c.,  but  it  was  not  until  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  that  jurisprudence  attained  its  highest  degree  of 
excellence  under  Gaius,  Papinianus,  Ulpianus,  and  Paulus,  whose 
authority  as  jurists  was  confirmed  by  imperial  edicts.  Their  writings 
were  the  groundwork  of  later  compilations,  especially  of  the  corpus 
juris  civilis,  published  by  Justinian. 


328  EUROPE. — ROME.       [729,  730.  §  165. 

729  4.  Arts. 

A  a.  Architecture.  Under  the  kings,  and  for  a  considerable 
time  after  the  establishment  of  the  republic,  the  temples 
and  other  public  works  (circus,  capitol,  cloacae,  water- 
courses, military  roads),  were  completed  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Etruscans.  After  the  subjugation  of  Sicily  and 
Greece,  and  especially  since  the  time  of  Sulla,  the  columns 
and  statues  brought  from  conquered  countries  served  to 
adorn  the  Roman  edifices ;  Greek  artists  also  visited  Rome, 
and  the  massive  Etruscan  masonry  was  partly  superseded, 
and  partly  amalgamated  with  the  columnar  architecture  of 

B  Greece.  In  the  latter  days  of  the  republic,  and  under  the 
first  emperors,  the  glory  of  Grecian  art  was  revived  at 
Rome,  but  its  grand  and  majestic  character  was  soon 
destroyed,  especially  after  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  by 
a  load  of  meretricious  ornament.  In  opposition  to  this 
superfluity  of  decoration,  the  Roman  architects,  about  the 
time  of  Constantine  the  Great,  fell  into  the  contrary  ex- 
treme of  excessive,  and  almost  rude,  simplicity.  For  an 
account  of  the  principal  public  buildings,  see  433  (p.  210). 

c  b.  Sculpture.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Roman  art  are 
of  the  coarsest  material,  generally  wood  or  terra  cotta. 
Bronze  seems  to  have  been  employed  from  the  year  of  the 
city  300,  at  first  for  statues  of  celebrated  men,  and  soon 
afterwards  for  representations  of  the  gods.  The  translation 
to  Rome  of  the  best  specimens  of  Grecian  art,  from  the  con- 
quered cities  of  Sicily,  Macedonia,  and  Greece,  succeeded, 
as  it  shortly  was,  by  the  arrival  of  a  crowd  of  Grecian 
sculptors,  improved  in  the  highest  degree  the  taste  of  the 
Roman  artist.  Notwithstanding,  however,  the  eagerness 
with  which  he  copied  these  Grecian  models,  enough  of 
peculiarity  still  remained  to  give  a  decidedly  Roman 
character  to  his  productions. 

730  The  demand  for  works  of  art  gained  ground  with  the  increasing 
taste  for  magnificence  in  public  and  private  buildings.     The  decora- 
tion of  the  numerous  edifices  erected  by  Augustus  and  his  friends, 
as  well  as  by  succeeding  emperors  until  the   reign  of  Commodus, 
employed  a  number  of  artists,  whose  names  for  the  most  part  are 
unknown.     After  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  works  of  art  abounded, 
in  the  shape  of  statues  of  the  emperors  and  their  relatives,  sarco- 
phagi and  urns  in  marble,  alabaster,  and  other  materials ;  but  in  all 
these  productions  there  was  a  want  of  vigor,  study,  and  system  ; 
nor  has  the  name  of  a  single  artist  of  that  date  been  handed  down 
to  posterity. 


731,  732.  §  160.]      EUROPE. — ROME.  329 

c.  Painting.  Until  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  professors  (730) 
of  this  art  at  Rome  were  almost  exclusively  Greeks,  whose  A 
pictures  represented  the  triumphs  of  Roman  generals,  and 
mythological  subjects.     The  fresco  paintings  so  common 
in  the  time  of  the  empire,  were,  for  the  most  part,  mere 
mechanical  copies  from  ancient  masters. 

Trade  and  manufactures.  731 

The  Romans,  like  the  Greeks,  abandoned  trade  and 
manufactures  to  foreigners,  freedmen,  and  slaves,  as  being 
employments  unworthy  the  attention  of  free  citizens.  In 
the  latter  days  of  the  republic,  however,  associations  were 
formed  by  the  knights  for  farming  the  revenue,  transacting 
the  business  of  bankers  and  money-changers,  and  conduct- 
ing various  commercial  enterprises.  The  trade  of  Rome  B 
was  entirely  passive,  no  productions  either  of  nature  or  art 
being  exported  to  foreign  countries.  The  imports  were 
grain  (from  Sicily,  the  province  of  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Pontus),  slaves,  and,  in  the  latter  days 
of  the  republic,  and  under  the  emperors,  various  articles 
of  luxury  from  India,  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  &c. 


§  166.  Historico-Geograpldcal  View  of  the  Roman  Empire* 
A.  European  countries. 

1.  Italia,  as  far  as  the  Rubicon  and  the  Alps,  from  732 
266.    Gallia  Cisalpina,  which  had  been  subjugated  as  early 

as  the  year  221,  was  considered  a  part  of  Italy  in  Caesar's 
time  (49),  but  Liguria  and  the  dominions  of  the  Garni, 
Istri,  and  Veneti  were  not  included  until  the  reign  of 
Augustus. 

2.  S  i  c  i  1  i  a,  with  its  circumjacent  islands.     The  Cartha-  c 
ginian  portion  from  241,  the  whole  island  from  210. 

3.  Sardinia  and  Corsica  from  238. 

4.  Hispania  treated  as  a  province  from  206,  entirely 
subjugated  in  19,  divided  into  H.  citerior  or  eastern,  and 
H.  ulterior  or  southern.     The  whole  peninsula  divided  by 
Augustus   into   three   provinces,  Lusitania,  Bsetica,  and 
Tarraconensis. 

5.  Gallia  Transalplna.    The  province  or  country  on  D 
the  southern  coast  from  the  Alps  to  the  Pyrenees  as  early 
as  the  year  121  ;  the  remainder  after  the  year  51.     The 


330  EUROPE. — ROME.      [733,  734.  §  166. 

(732)  whole  country  divided  by  Augustus  into  four  provinces. 

A  a.  G.  Narbonensis.  b.  G.  Aquitanica.  c.  G.  Lugdu- 
nensis.  d.  G.  Belgica.  The  last  of  these  provinces  was 
subdivided  in  the  time  of  the  empire  into  three  portions, 
Belgium  proper,  Germania  superior  on  the  Upper  Rhine, 
and  Germania  inferior  on  the  Lower  Rhine. 

6.  Britannia  Roman  a  (or  England  with  southern 
Scotland),  from  A.  D.  85.  Its  frontier  towards  Britannia 
Barbara  or  Caledonia  often  varied,  and  was  protected  by 
walls  and  mounds.  Divided  by  Septimius  Severus  into 
Britannia  superior  and  inferior. 

B  7.  In  north-western  Germany  the  Batavi,  from  the 
time  of  the  campaigns  of  Drusus,  and  the  Frisii  and 
Chauci,  until  the  Balavian  war  of  liberation,  were  subject 
to  the  Romans,  who  reckoned  also  the  Chatti  and  Cherusci 
among  their  vassals,  until  the  defeat  of  Varus. 

In  south-western  Germany.  The  Mattiaci  between  the  Main 
and  Taunus,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  decumates  agri  were  Roman 
vassals. 

The  agri  extended  eastwards  from  the  upper  Danube,  and  the 
lower  Main  to  the  limes  transrhenanus,  or  great  Roman  line  of  forti- 
fication (a  ditch  protected  by  palisades),  which  ran  from  the  Main 
across  the  Jaxt  and  Kocher,  and  joined  the  limes  Rhaeticus  (devil's 
wall).  This  territory  was  perhaps  acquired  in  Domitian's  campaign 
against  the  Chatti,  A.  D.  84. 

c      8.  Rhaetia  (with  Vindelicia),  from  the  year  15. 

9.  Noricum,  from  15. 

10.  Pannonia,  conquered  in  33,  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  province  probably  by  Tiberius,  divided  into 
P.  superior  and  inferior. 

11.  Mcesia,  from    29,  divided   into   M.  superior   and 
inferior. 

12.  Thracia,  after  its  subjugation  in  the  year  74,  was 
still  governed  by  tributary  kings,  until  the  reign  of  Claudius 
or  Vespasian,  when  it  became  a  Roman  province. 

D  13.  lllyricum  or  Dalmatia.  A  part  of  the  Illyrian 
coast  was  subdued  in  228,  and  the  whole  country  in  168 
became  a  dependency  of  Rome.  To  this  province  were 
added  the  dominions  of  the  Japydse  and  Dalmatians  (con- 
quered in  33),  and  of  the  Liburni,  who,  it  would  appear, 
submitted  voluntarily  to  the  Romans. 

734      The  whole  district  was  called  the  province  of  Dalmatia,  from  the 
oame  of  that  nation  which  had  withstood  the  Romans  longer  than 


735.  §  166.]         EUROPE. ROME.  331 

any  other.     At   a   later  period  it  was  denominated    Illyria.     The  (734) 
southern  portion,  or  Illyria  Graeca,  belonged  to  the  province  of  Ma-  A 
cedonia. 

14.  Macedonia,  conquered  in  168,  a  province  in  148. 
Thessaly  and  Illyria  added. 

15.  Epirus  from  167. 

16.  Achaia,  or  central  Greece,  and  the  Peloponnesus, 
from  146. 

17.  Dacia,  from  A.  D.  106  to  270. 

18.  Greta,  66,  formed  a  province  in  conjunction  with 
the  empire  of  Gyrene,  conquered  in  96. 

B.    Countries  in  Asia. 

1.  Asia  Proconsularis,  from  130,  comprised  Mysia,  735 
Lydia,  Caria,  and  the  greater  part  of  Phrygia.  B 

2.  Pamphylia,  with  the  southern  portion  of  Pisidia, 
from  about  78.     Lycia  was  added  to  this  province  by  the 
emperor  Claudius. 

3.  Cilicia  (proper  or  eastern),  from  75. 

4.  Cappadocia,  from  A.  D.  18,  to  which  was  added  the 
greater  part  of  Pont  us  (governed  until  the  reign  of  Nero 
by  its  own   tributary  kings),  together  with  Armenia 
minor  (by  Tiberius). 

5.  Galatia  (from   25),  to  which  Augustus  annexed  c 
almost  the  whole  of  Paphlagonia. 

6.  Bithynia,  from  75,  to  which  Pompey  added  the 
districts  of  Pontus  and  Augustus,  the  western  portion  of 
Paphlagonia. 

7.  Armenia  major,  from  A.  D.  106 — 117,  then  under 
tributary  kings  until  A.  D.  363. 

8.  Mesopotamia,  A.  D.  106 — 11 7,  then  again  165 — 363. 

9.  Assyria,  A.  D.  106—117. 

10.  Syria  with  Phcenice  from  64,  and  CommageneD 
from  the  time  of  Tiberius.     To  this  province  was  added 
Palsestina  (dependent  from  the  year  63),  as  a  part  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Syria  under  procurators   unin- 
terruptedly from  the  year  of  our  Lord  44.     Also  Arabia 
Petrsea,  from  A.  D.  105. 

11.  Cyprus  from  58. 

12.  The  provincia  insularum  comprised,  from  the 
time  of  Vespasian,  the  islands  of  Lesbos,  Samos,  Chios, 
and  Rhodes. 


332  EUROPE. — ROME.      [736,  737.  §  166. 

736  To  the  Romans  were  subject  also  the  kings  of  Colchis 
A  (or  Lazica),  and  of  the  empire  of  the  Bosporus,  on  the 

Tauric  Chersonesus,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  third 
Mithridatic  war,  as  well  as  the  kings  of  Iberia,  at  least 
from  the  time  of  Trajan. 

C.   African  Countries. 

737  1.  jEgyptus,  with  the  sandy  line   of  coast,  as  far 
westward  as  Cyrene  (from  30). 

2.  Africa  propria  with  Numidia.  The  Cartha- 
ginian portion  (Zeugitana  and  Byzacium)  from  146.  Nu- 
midia (eastwards  as  far  as  the  altars  of  the  Philaeni)  from 
46.  The  former  was  termed  Old,  the  other  New,  Africa. 
B  3.  Mauretania,  or  Mauritania,  a  province  from  the 
time  of  Claudius,  divided  into  M.  Tingitana  (so  named 
from  the  city  of  Tingis),  and  M.  Csesariensis,  which  derived 
its  name  from  its  ancient  capital  Csesarea. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


FIRST  PEBIOD. — From  the  rise  of  the  most  ancient  states  to  the 
reign  of  Cyrus,  B.  c.  2000—558. 


2000-1000. 

B.  C. 

About 
2000 
About 
1500 


ABRAHAM.  Nirarod.  Niraus.   Semiramis.   Invasion  of  Egypt 

by  Hyksos. 
MOSES.     Return  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  to  Palestine. 

Sesostris. 
1194__'H84.   The  Trojan  War. 

1104.  Migration  af  the  Dorians,  or  Heraclldae,  to  Peloponnesus. 
1095 — 975.  MONARCHY  IN  PALESTINE.     Saul,  David,  Solomon. 
1068.  Abolition  of  monarchy  at  Athens.     Archons. 

1000-900. 
975.  Division  of  Palestine  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 

900—800. 
880.  Lycurgus.     Carthage  founded. 

800—700. 

776.  First  Olympiad. 
753.  ROME  FOUNDED. 
747.  JEra.  of  Nabonassar.  The  Babylonians  and  Medes  throw  off 

the  Assyrian  yoke. 

722.  Conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  Salmanassar  [Shalma- 
neser]. 

700—600. 

656.  Psammetichus  sole  monarch  in  Egypt. 
624.  Dracon  legislator  at  Athens. 

604.  Dissolution  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.     Defeat  of  Necho  nea. 
Circesium. 

600—500. 

694.  Solon  legislator  at  Athens. 
586.  Jerusalem  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
560.  Pisistratus  at  Athens. 

558.  END  OF  THE  MEDIAN,  AND  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PERSIAN 
EMPIRE,  BY  CYRUS. 


334  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


SECOND  PERIOD. — From  Cyru*  to  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 

B.  c.  558—323. 
B.  c. 

558—529.  Cyrus. 
538.  Babylonia  a  Persian  province. 
529—522.  Cambyses. 
525.  Egypt  a  Persian  province. 
522.  Pseudosmerdis. 
521-485.  Darius  I. 

510.  Expulsion  of  the  Pisistratidae  from  Athens.     Clisthenes. 
509-^30.  ROME  A  REPUBLIC. 
500 — 449.  Insurrection  of  the  lonians. 


500—400. 

494.  Secession  of  the  plebs  from  Rome. 

492 — 479.  Defensive  war  of  the  Greeks  against  the  Persians. 

490.  Victory  of  Miltiades  at  Marathon. 

485—465.  Xerxes  I. 

480.  Battles  of  Thermopylae,  Artemisium,  Salamis.  The  Carthagi- 
nians defeated  by  Gelon,  near  Himera. 

479.  Battles  of  Plattete  and  Mycale. 

478     449.  Aggressive  war  of  the  Greeks  against  the  Persians. 

477  (?).  Transfer  of  the  maritime  Hegemony  from  Sparta  to 
Athens. 

469.  Victory  of  Cimon  on  the  Eurymedon. 

465—424.  Artaxerxes  I. 

465 — 456.   The  third  Messenian  war. 

451 — 450.  Legislation  of  the  decemviri  at  Rome. 

449.  Battle  at  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 

444.  Rogations  of  the  tribune  C.  Canuleius  and  his  colleagues. 

431—404.  1  HE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR. 

430.  The  plague  at  Athens. 

429.  Pericles  dies. 

428.  The  island  Lesbos  revolts  from  Athens. 

424.  Xerxes  II.     Sogdianus. 

424—405.  Darius  II.     Nothus. 

422.  Cleon  and  Brasidas  slain  at  Amphipolis. 

421.  Peace  of  Nicias. 

418.  Renewal  of  the  war. 

415 — 413.  Enterprise  of  the  Athenians  against  Sicily. 

410.  Victory  of  Alcibiades  at  Cyzicus. 

407.  Return  of  Alcibiades  to  Athens.     His  disgrace. 

406.  Callicratidas  defeated  off  the  Arginusian  islands. 

405.  Lysander  victorious  at  JEgospotamos. 

405 — 362.  Artaxerxes  II. 

404.  Athens  taken  by  Lysander.     The  thirty  tyrants. 

404 — 395.  Last  war  of  the  Romans  against  Veii. 

403.  Expulsion  of  the  thirty  tyrants  from  Athens. 

401.  The  younger  Cyrus  slain  at  Cunaxa. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  335 

400—300. 
B.  C. 

394 — 387.   The  Corinthian  war. 

394.  Lysander  slain  at  Haliartus,  Conon  victorious  at  Cnidus. 
389.  The  Romans  defeated  on  the  Allia.      ROME  TAKEN  BY  THE 

GAULS. 

387.  Peace  of  Antalcidas. 
378 — 362.   War  between  Sparta  and  Thebes. 
376.   The  Lycinian  rogations  accepted  in  336. 
371.  Victory  of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  at  Leuctra. 
366.  The  praetura  urbana.     The  curule  aedileship. 
365.  L.  Sextius  the  first  plebeian  consul. 
362.  Epaminondas  falls  at  Mantinea. 
362—338.  Artaxerxes  III. 
359—336.  Philip  II.  of  Macedonia. 
357 — 355.  War  of  the  confederates  against  Athens. 
355—346.     The  Phocian,  or  holy  war. 
342 — 340.  First  war  of  Pome  with  the  Samnites. 
339—337.  War  of  Rome  with  the  Latins. 
338.  Philip  II.  defeats  the  Greeks  at  Chaeronea. 
336—330.  Darius  IV.  Codomannus. 
336 — 323.  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 
334. — Alexander  defeats  the  Persians  on  the  Granicus. 

333.  at  Issus. 

332.  conquers    Syria,    Cyprus,    Phoenicia,    Palestine, 

Egypt. 

331.  vanquishes  the  Persians  at  Gaugamela. 

327—326.  Alexander's  expedition  to  Western  India. 
326—324.  Return  of  Alexander  to  Babylon. 
325 — 304. — Second  war  of  Rome  with  the  Samnites. 
323.  Death  of  Alexander. 


THIRD  PERIOD. — From  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  B.  c.  323 — 30. 

323—322.  The  Samian  war. 

323 — 321.  EGYPT  FLOURISHES  UNDER  THE  THREE  FIRST  PTOLEMIES. 

321.  Defeat  of  the  Romans  at  Candium. 

314 — 301.  Two  wars  of  Antigonus  with  the  satraps  of  the  west. 

312 — 64.  THE  SYRIAN  EMPIRE  UNDER  THE  SELEUCIDJE. 

309.  Victory  of  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  over  the  Etruscans  at  Perusia. 

301.  Antigonus  defeated  at  Ipsus. 

300—200. 

298—290.   Third  war  of  Rome  with  the  Samnites. 
295.  Victory  of  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  over  the  Samnites  and  their 

allies  at  Sentinum. 

282 — 272.   War  of  Rome  with  Tarcntum  and  Pyrrhus. 
280.  Pyrrhus  victorious  at  Heraclea. 

—  Macedonia  and  Greece  invaded  by  the  Gauls. 

—  Formation   of   the    jEtolian,  and    renewal    of   the    Achaean 

league. 


336  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 


B.  C. 

279.  Pyrrhus  victorious  at  Asculum. 

275.  -  defeated  at  Beneventum. 

266.  Italy  completely  subjected  to  Rome. 

264—241.  FIRST  PUNIC  WAR. 

260.  First  naval  victory  of  the  Romans,  gained  by  C.  Duilius,  off 


242.  Victory  of  C.  Lutatius  Catulus  at  the  ^Egatian  islands. 

241.  Sicily  the  first  Roman  province. 

218—201.  SECOND  PUNIC  WAR. 

218.  Hannibal  victorious  on  the  Ticinus  and  Trebia. 

217.  ----  -  -  Trasimene  lake. 

216.  •  -  at  Cannes. 

212.  Syracuse  taken. 

210.  The  whole  of  Sicily  Roman. 

207.  Defeat  of  Hasdrubal  on  the  Metaurus. 

206.  Spain  a  Roman  province. 

202.  Hannibal  defeated  at  Zama. 

200—100. 

200  —  133.  Wars  of  the  Romans  in  Spain. 

197.  T.  Quinctius  Flaminius  defeats  Philip  III.  at  "Cynoscephalae. 
196.  T.  Quinctius  proclaims  the  freedom  of  Greece. 
192—190.  War  of  the  Romans  with  Antiochus  the  Great,  of  Syria. 
171  —  168.  War  of  the  Romans  with  Perseus. 
167.  Defeat  of  Perseus  at  Pydna. 

—  The  Jews  revolt  from  Antiochus  IV. 

167  —  39.  The  Jews  under  the  Asmonaeans  or  Maccabees. 

150  —  146.  THIRD  PUNIC  WAR. 

148.  Macedonia  a  Roman  province. 

146.  Carthage  destroyed  by  Scipio  Africanus  Minor,  and  Corinth 

by  Mummius. 
133.  Numantia  destroyed  by  Scipio  Africanus  Minor. 

—  Agrarian  law  of  Tib.  Sempronius  Gracchus. 
123  —  121.  C.  Sempronius  Gracchus. 

113.  Invasion  of  Illyria  by  the  Cimbri. 
112—106.  War  of  the  Romans  with  Jugurtha. 
102.  Marius  defeats  the  Teutones  at  Aquas  Sextiae. 
101.  -  the  Cimbri  at  Vercella?. 

From  100  to  the  birth  of  our  Lord. 
91  —  88.  The  Marsian  war,  or  war  of  the  Confederates. 
88  —  82.  CIVIL  WAR  BETWEEN  MARIUS  AND  SULLA. 
87  —  84.  First  war  against  Mithridates. 
83.  Return  of  Sulla  to  Rome. 
82—79.  Sulla'i  dictatorship. 
74  —  64.  Third  war  against  Mithridates. 
66  —  62    Catiline's  conspiracy. 
64.  Syria  a  Roman  province. 

63.  Catiline's  conspiracy  crushed  by  the  consul,  M.  Tullius  Cicero. 
60.  CJESAR,  POMPEY,  AND  CRASSUS  ESTABLISH  THE  FIRST  TRIUMVI- 
RATE. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  337 


B.  C. 

58 — 51.  Caesar  conquers   Gaul,  crosses   the    Rhine   twice,  visits 

Britain  twice. 

49 — 48.  CIVIL  WAR  BETWEEN  C.KSAR  AND  POMFEY. 
48.  Caesar  defeats  Pompey  at  Pharsalus. 
48 — 47.  Caesar's  Alexandrian  war. 
47.  Caesar's  war  against  Pharnaces. 
46.  Caesar  defeats  the  partisans  of  Pompey  at  Thapsus. 

the  sons  of  Pompey  at  Munda. 

44.  CJESAR  ASSASSINATED. 

44 — 43.  The  civil  war  of  Mutina  against  Antony. 

43.  SECOND  TRIUMVIRATE   BETWEEN   OCTAVIAN,  ANTONY  AND  LE- 

PIDUS. 

42.  Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated  at  Philippi. 
39 — A.  D.  70.  The  Jews  under  the  Herodians. 
31 — 30.   War  between  Octavian  and  Antony. 
31.  Battle  of  Actium. 
30.  AUGUSTUS  EMPEROR. 


FOURTH  PERIOD. — From  the  reign  of  Augustus  to  the  fall  of  the 
western  empire,  B.  c.  30 — A.  D.  476. 

30 — A.  D.  14.  C.  Julius  Ctesar  Octavianus  Augustus. 

4  (?)  or  6.  CHRIST  BORN. 
9.  Herman  defeats  Varus  in  the  Teutoburgian  forest. 

14—37.  Tiberius. 

37 — 41.  Caligula. 

41—54.  Claudius. 

54 — 68.  Nero.     Conflagration  of  Rome. 

68—69.  Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius. 

69 — 79.  Vespasian.     Complete  subjugation  of  Britain. 

70.  Jerusalem  destroyed  by  Titus. 

79 — 81.  Titus.     Eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Herculaneum,  and  Pompeii 
destroyed. 

81—96.  Domitian. 

96—98.  Nerva. 

98 — 117.  Trajan.     Greatest  extension  of  the  Roman  empire. 
117 — 138.  Hadrian.     Restoration  of  Trajan's  Asiatic  conquests. 
138 — 161.  Antoninus  Pius. 
161—180.  M.  Aurelius  Philosophus. 
166 — 180.  War  of  the  Romans  with  the  Marcomanni. 
180—192.  Commodus. 
180 — 284.  Decline  of  the  empire  under  the  usurped  power  of  the 

Praetorian  guard. 

226 — 651.  The  new  Persian  empire. 

284 — 305.  First  partition  of  the   empire  between   Diocletian   and 
Maximian.     Two  Caesars. 

324 337.    CONSTANTINE   THE   GREAT,  SOLE   EMPEROR. 

325.   The  first  oecumenical  council  at  Ntccea. 
330  (?)   The  imperial  residence  transferred  to  Byzantium. 
375.  COMMENCEMENT  OF   MIGRATIONS  OCCASIONED   BY  THE  INVASION 
OF  THE  HUNS. 


338  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 


-     - 
395.  THEODOSIUS   DIVIDES   THE   EMPIRE  between  his  sons  Hononua 

and  Arcadius. 

410.  Rome  sacked  by  Alaric. 

451.  -<Etius  and  Theodoric  I.  defeat  Attila  in  the  Catalaunian  fields. 
455.  Some  plundered  by  the  Vandals. 
476.  Romulus  Augustulus  deposed.     Odoacer  king  of  Italy. 


QUESTIONS. 


*  The  most  remarkable  forms  of  the  year. 

[2J  DESCRIBE    Jie   variable  solar  year   of  the   Egyptians.      Wnat 

c  form  of  year  are  the  Chaldeans  and  Babylonians  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  adopted  ?  Into  what  kind  of  months  did  all 

D  the  Semitic  nations  probably  divide  their  years?  Did  the 
Athenian  year  consist  of  lunar  or  solar  months  ?  What  in- 
tercalations took  place  ?  Are  the  Athenians  the  only  Greek 
nation  with  whose  chronology  we  are  fully  acquainted? 
How  was  their  month  divided  ?  When  did  their  day  begin  ? 
What  form  of  the  year  did  the  Romans  use  under  Romulus? 

A  What  under  Numa?  How  often  was  an  intercalary  month 
added  ?  When  and  by  whose  authority  was  the  solar  year 
adopted  by  the  Romans?  How  was  the  Roman  month  sub- 
divided ?  How  were  the  days  of  a  Roman  month  reckoned  ? 

B  What  were  Nundinae  ?  When  did  the  day  begin  ?  What  ca- 
lendar did  the  Christians  use  ?  What  division  of  time  did  the 
Christians  borrow  from  the  Jews?  What  did  the  council  of 
Nicaea  decide  with  respect  to  Easter  ?  In  the  middle  ages  was 

c  the  beginning  of  the  year  uniform  in  different  nations?  When  was 
the  1st  of  January  made  the  invariable  commencement?  By 
whom  was  the  Julian  calendar  amended  ?  What  amount  of 
error  had  accumulated,  when  the  '  new  style '  was  adopted  ? 
What  Christian  nations  still  reckon  their  time  according  to  the 

D  Julian  calendar  (the  old  style)  ?  How  do  the  Mahometans 
reckon  their  time  ?  Describe  their  year.  Do  they  reckon  the 
day  from  sunset  or  from  sunrise?  Describe  the  Republican 
calendar  of  the  French. 

*  The  most  important  historical  (Bras. 

[3]       What  was  the  aera  of  Nabonassar  ?     Give   the  dates  of  the 

A     destruction  of  the  first  Temple,  the  Seleucian  aera,  that  of  the 

Maccabees,  and  the  aera  of  the  world.     What  is  meant  by  an 

Olympiad  ?     With  what  year  B  c.  does  the  beginning  of  the  first 

Olympiad   coincide  ?     When   did   this  mode  of  computing  time 

come  into  general  use  among  the  Greeks  ?    Did  it  supersede  the 

B     more  ancient  mode  of  naming  the  year  after  some  person  in 

authority  ?      After   whom   was   the   year  named    at    Sparta  ? 

at   Athens  ?      Among   the    Romans  what  was   the   only  aera 

recognized   in   public   proceedings?      When   did   the    aera   ab 


340  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [11 — 13. 

ur ba  conditd  come  into  general  use  ?  Give  the  Varronian  and 
the  Catonian  date  of  the  founders  of  Rome.  What  was  the 

c  sera  of  the  Seluecidae  ?  Amongst  whom  is  this  aera  still  in  use  ? 
How  did  the  Christians  of  the  West  in  the  first  centuries  dis- 
tinguish the  year?  On  what  was  the  Indiction -Cycle  founded? 

D  Who  invented  the  ffira/rom  the  birth  of  CHRIST?  What 
amount  of  error  was  probably  made  in  fixing  the  year  of  our 
LORD'S  birth  ?  What  sera  is  still  in  use  among  the  Coptic  and 

E  Abyssinian  Christians  ?  Among  the  Mahometans  what  aera  is 
used  ?  With  what  day  of  what  year  does  this  a3ra  commence  ? 

A  What  method  of  computation  has  been  in  general  use  since  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ? 

§  6.     HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 

I.  From  Adam  to  Noah. 

[11]       Give  the  probable  date  of  the  creation.     By  what  was  the 

B     sentence  of  our  first   parents'  expulsion  from    Paradise   alle- 

c     viated  ?    How  did  the  sons  of  Adam  employ  themselves  ?    Who 

first  offered  sacrifice  ?  and  what  was  the  probable  origin  of  that 

rite  ?     How  was  the  union  of  the  first  family  dissolved  ?    Who 

A     built  the  first  city  ?  •   By  what  is  the  Bible  account  of  the  deluge 

confirmed  ?     Who  escaped  the  otherwise  universal  destruction 

B     of  the  Rood  ?     How  were  these  persons  saved  ? 

II.  From  Noah  to  Abraham. 
[12]       Where   did   Noah's  descendants  settle  ?     What  caused  their 

c  dispersion  ?  Over  what  countries  did  the  descendants  of  Shem 
spread  themselves  ?  What  countries  were  peopled  by  the  de- 
scendants of  Japheth  ?  What  by  the  children  of  Ham  1  What 
was  the  only  family  in  which  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the 
one  true  God  were  not  entirely  lost  ?  From  whom  was  Abraham 
descended?  What  was  the  first  command  that  Abraham  re- 
ceived from  God  ?  What  was  promised  on  the  condition  of  his 

D  obedience  ?  What  was  the  land  of  his  fathers,  which  he  quitted  ? 
In  what  respect  did  the  original  promise  of  a  Saviour  now  be- 
come more  definite  ? 

III.  From  Abraham  to  the  Conquest  of  Palestine. 

13]       With  whom  did  Abraham  enter  the  land  of  Canaan  ?     What 

B  circumstances  soon  compelled  them  to  a  separation  ?  Where  did 
Lot  settle  ?  What  cities  were  overthrown  by  GOD,  as  a  monu- 
ment of  his  vengeance  against  sinners  ?  When  these  guilty 
cities  were  overthrown,  what  did  the  plain  in  which  they  stood 

c  become  ?  Who  was  ancestor  of  the  idolatrous  Moabites  and 
Ammonites  ?  Who  were  the  parents  of  Ishmael  ?  Why  was 
Isaac  called  the  son  of  promise  ?  What  great  and  mysterious 

D  trial  of  his  faith  did  Abraham  undergo?  How  was  his  faith 
rewarded  ?  By  what  rite  was  every  male  of  Abraham's  family 
to  be  incorporated  into  the  covenant  made  between  him  and 
GOD?  What  became  of  Ishmael?  Who  became  the  heir  of 

A  Abraham's  possessions?  Who  were  Isaac's  children?  Of 
what  profane  act  was  Esau  guilty  ?  Of  whom  did  he  become 


14.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  341 

the  ancestor?  After  Isaac's  death  who  became  the  head  of  the 
Tsraelitish  family?  Give  the  history  of  his  favorite  son  Joseph. 

B  Into  what  country,  and  into  what  district  of  that  country  did 
Jacob  migrate  with  his  family  ?  Under  whose  command,  and 

D  when  did  the  Israelites  quit  Egypt?  Give  an  account  of 
Moses.  Who  was  Aaron  ?  How  was  the  army  of  the  Israelites 

A  guided  ?  How  did  the  Israelites  cross  the  Red  Sea  ?  Where 
did  Moses  deliver  to  the  people  a  code  of  laws  ?  How  did  GOD 
punish  their  faithlessness  and  disobedience  ?  How  were  Moses 
and  Aaron  punished  for  having  on  one  occasion  failed  to  sanctify 
Jehovah  before  the  people  ? 

*  The  Mosaic  Laws. 

[14]       By  whom  were  the  Mosaic  Laws  given  to  Moses?     *  What 

B  parts  are  especially  mentioned  as  having  been  so  given  ?  *  What 
confirmations  of  ancient  patriarchal  usages  do  the  Mosaic  laws 
contain  ?  *  What  is  the  first  principle  of  religious  worship  as 

c  laid  down  in  the  laws  of  Moses?  *  How  was  the  presence  of  the 
Almighty  indicated  to  the  Jews?  *  In  what  way  might  that 
presence  not  be  represented?  *  Describe  generally  the  taber- 
nacle. *  What  tribe  were  charged  with  the  administration  of 
all  that  related  to  public  worship  ?  *  To  what  family  was  the 

D  priesthood  itself  confined  ?  *  Who  discharged  the  lowest  offices 
connected  with  public  worship  ?  *  What  duties  were  performed 
by  the  Levites  besides  those  that  related  to  the  ceremonial  wor- 
ship ?  *  Where  did  the  Levites  dwell  ?  and  how  were  they  sup- 

A  ported  ?  *.  Who  was  the  supreme  judge  ?  *  What  did  the 
High  Priest  do  on  the  great  Day  of  Atonement?  *  What  was 
the  object  of  the  Sabbath  ?  *  Explain  the  terms  Sabbatical 
Year  and  the  year  of  Jubilee.  *  What  took  place  in  the  year 

B  of  Jubilee?  *  At  what  three  annual  festivals  were  all  the 
males  required  to  visit  the  place  where  the  ark  of  God  was  de- 
posited ?  *  Describe  the  object,  &c.  of  the  Passover  (Passah). 

*  Of  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  or  7iwrr/*offr»j.      *  Of  the  Feast  of 
c     Tabernacles.     *  By  what  yearly  penitential  observance  was  their 

dependence  on  Jehovah  especially  recalled  ?  *  What  was  the 
Feast  of  Trumpets  ?  *  Where  were  the  sacrifices  offered  ?  *  And 
into  what  kinds  were  they  divided  ?  *  Besides  these  sacrifices, 
what  were  the  Israelites  required  to  bring  before  the  Lord  ? 

D  *  Mention  some  other  religious  observances.  *  What  was  the 
political  constitution  of  the  Israelites  ?  *  How  were  the  people 
divided  ?  *  How  were  the  tribes  governed  ?  and  what  did  each 
tribe  form?  *  To  whom  was  the  whole  nation  subject?  *  Who 
governed  it  as  his  visible  representative  ?  *  On  what  extraordi- 
nary occasions  were  the  people  called  together?  *  For  what 
case  was  a  special  provision  found  in  the  Mosaic  law  ?  *  De- 
scribe the  administration  of  justice  after  the  conquest  of  Pales- 

A  tine.  *  For  what  offences  was  the  punishment  of  death  in- 
flicted ?  *  How  was  this  punishment  inflicted  ?  *  Mention  the 
other  punishments  and  penalties  inflicted  by  the  Jewish  code. 

*  Was  any  (and,  if  so,  what)  escape  provided  for  one  who  had 
killed   his  neighbor  without   malice    prepense?      *  Who  were 


342  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [15 — 17. 

required  to  serve  in  the  army  ?    *  How  was  it  divided  ?   *  What 
B     regulations   were  made  with  respect  to  sieges?      *  What   re- 
gulation  was   made   for  the  avoidance  of   idolatry?     *  What 
c     life  were  the  Israelites  required  to  lead  ?      *  What  social  virtues 
were  strictly  enjoined  by  the  law  ? 

Who  succeeded  Moses,  and  how  was  his  commission  ratified  ? 
How  many  princes  of  the  Canaanites  did  this  leader  subdue  ? 
How  was  the  land  of  Canaan  divided  ?  After  whom  were  the 
tribes  named  ? 

IV.  .from  the  Conquest  of  Palestine  to  the  establishment  of  the 

Monarchy,     Period  of  the  Judges, 

[15]       How  were  the  twelve  tribes  united  into  one  federal  common- 
A     wealth?     Where  was  the  tabernacle  first  pitched  in  Canaan? 

Where  was  the  general  assembly  held  ?     What  great  command 
B     of  GOD  was  in  a  great  measure  disregarded  ?     Who  were  the 

Judges?     Mention  some  of  them.     Who  founded  the  Schools 
c     of  the  Prophets?      How  came  the  Israelites  to  desire  to  have  a 

visible  king  ?     Who  was  highly  displeased  at  this  request  ?     Did 
D     GOD  accede  to  their  demand  1      Who  was  anointed  to  be  king 

over  Israel  1 

V.  From  the  establishment  of  the  Monarchy  to  the  separation 

of  the  two  kingdoms. 
[16]       What  oath  did  Saul  take  when  he  received  the  homage  of 

A  the  Israelites  ?  What  tribes  did  he  subdue  ?  What  prohibition 
did  he  disregard  in  the  case  of  the  Amalekites  ?  Of  what  pre- 
vious violation  of  GOD'S  law  had  he  been  guilty  ]  Who  was 
then  privately  anointed  to  be  the  future  king  of  Israel  1  Give 
some  account  of  this  future  king's  youth  How  came  he  to  be 

B  persecuted  by  the  jealousy  of  the  king  1  How  did  Saul  end  his 
life  1  Was  David  at  once  acknowledged  by  all  the  tribes  ? 

c  What  city  did  David  choose  to  be  the  royal  residence  I  Where 
was  the  ark  of  the  covenant  now  placed  ?  For  what  purpose  was 
the  booty  taken  in  David's  wars  set  aside  ?  Did  he  execute  his 
plan  ?  Describe  David's  conquests  and  the  extent  of  his  king- 

D     dom.      Describe    the    splendor    of   his  court   and   monarchy. 

A  What  were  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  David's  personal 
religion  1  What  grievous  sins  did  he  commit  ?  What  sentence 
of  punishment  was  pronounced  against  him  because  he  had 
given  occasion  to  the  enemies  of  the  LORD  to  blaspheme  ?  Who 

B     deposed  David  ?     What  was  this  leader's  fate  ?     In  whose  favor 
did  David  abdicate  before  his  death  1      Who  was  the  mother  of 
his  successor  ? 
[17]       How  was  the  wisdom  of  Solomon  displayed  ?     What  was  his 

C  great  work?  By  what  artisans,  and  in  what  time  was  the 
temple  finished  ?  How  was  it  divided  ?  What  did  Solomon 
build  besides  the  temple  ?  With  whom  did  Solomon  renew  a 

D  commercial  league  ?  What  countries  did  his  fleet  probably  visit  ? 
In  what  did  his  love  of  magnificence  and  luxury  manifest  itself? 

A  How  did  Solomon  alienate  the  affections  of  his  people  ?  By 
whom  was  a  conspiracy  organized  against  him  ?  What  countries 
fell  off  from  Solomon  ] 


18 30.]  OP    ANCIENT    HISTORY.  343 

[18]      What  schism   took   place   under  Rehoboam?     What  tribes 
B     formed  the    kingdom  of  Judah?    and    what    the    kingdom  of 
Israel  ?     What  modes  of  false  worship  did  the  Israelites  gene- 
rally adopt? 

VI,   The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 

[19]      What  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel?     To  what 
D     year  did  it  last,  and  under  how  many  kings  ?     By  whom  were 
the  idolatrous  kings  opposed  ?     What  Assyrian  king  took  most 
A     of  the  cities  of  Israel  by  storm  ?     Who  put  an  end  to  the  king- 
dom of  Israel  ?     What  mixture  of  tribes  produced  the  Sama- 
ritans ?     To  what  year  and  under  how  many  princes  did  the 
B     kingdom  of  Judah  last  ?     Mention  the  country  or  countries  to 
which  the  kingdom  of  Judah  became  tributary. 

VII.   The  Israelites  under  the  rule  of  the  Persians. 

[2U]  By  whom  and  after  how  many  years  of  exile  were  the  Jews 
D  permitted  to  return  to  their  own  land  ?  What  other  favor  did 

this  prince  show  them  ?  How  many  at  first  returned  to  Palestine  ? 

To  whom  was  the  administration  of  civil  affairs  principally  left? 

During  the  reigns  of  Cambyses  and  Smerdis,  was  any  (and  if 
A  so,  what)  progress  made  in  building  of  the  Temple  ?  Under 

whose  reign  was  the  second  Temple  completed  ?     By  whom  and 

under  what  leaders  was  the  colony  established  in  Judaea  ? 

§  7.     Literature,  Arts,  and  Sciences. 

[21]  To  whom  was  the  learning  of  the  Hebrews  in  early  times 
B  confined  ?  In  what  did  it  consist  ?  In  what  does  the  poetry  of 
c  the  Israelites  differ  from  all  other  national  poetry?  Into  what 
D  classes,  as  to  form,  may  their  poems  be  divided  ?  What  arts  did 
A  not  flourish  among  the  Jews?  What  art  did  flourish?  Had 
the  Jews  any  foreign  trade  ? 

§  9.     Fragments  of  the  Ancient  History  of  India. 
'29]      What    Indian   expeditions   are    quite    legendary?     What   is 
D     known  of  India  before  the  time  of  Alexander  ?     What  forms  of 
government  did    Alexander  find   in   the  Punjab  ?     What   go- 
A     vernore   did  he  place    over  the    conquered   provinces?     What 
native  prince  expelled  the  governors  appointed  by  Alexander? 
What  extent  of  empire  did  this  prince  found  ?     By  whom  was 
it  finally  destroyed?     Enumerate    the   other   nations   or  tribes 
who  established  dynasties  in  India. 

* 
§  10.     Religion,  political  Condition,  Literature,  $-c.  of  the  ancient 

Indians. 

[30]      In  what  principles  does  the  Brahminical  religion  appear  to 
c     consist?     What  are  the  two  forms  of  popular  worship  which 
arose  in  Northern  India  with  Brahmaism  ? 

*  What  are  the  so  called  deities  that  form  the  Trinity  of  Indian 
D     mythology  ?     *  Which  of  the  Indian  deities  is  said  to  have  as- 
sumed the  human  form  ?     *  How  many  incarnations  of  this  sup- 


344  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [31 43. 

posed  deity  are  asserted  to  have  occurred?     *  What  are  the 
religious  observances  of  the  followers  of  Brahman  ?     *  Amongst 
whom  does  the  practice  of  burning  widows  prevail  ? 
[31]      What    is   the    date    of   the   Buddhist    reformation?     Who 

A     effected  this  reformation  ?    What  was  believed  concerning  him  ? 

B     What   institutions    or   practices   did    he    reject?      Give    some 

general  account  of  the  progress  of  the  Buddhist  reformation. 
[32]       What  form  of  government  prevailed  amongst  the  Hindoos? 
Was   the    sovereignty   hereditary    or   elective  1    Describe    the 

o     tenure  of  land.     *  State  generally  what  is  known  with  respect 

to  the  administration  of  the  government. 
[33]       Enumerate,  each  in  its  order,  the  four  castes  into  which  the 

A  people  were  divided.  Describe  the  privileges  of  the  first  caste. 
What  office  could  only  be  held  by  one  who  belonged,  by  birth, 
to  the  second  caste  ? 

[34]       Under  what  title  are  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hindoos  com- 
prehended ?     What  compositions  stand  at  the  head  of  these  ? 

c     Of  what  do  the  remainder  treat?      With  what  do  the  sacred 

D  writings  conclude  ?  *  What  is  known  of  the  progress  of  the 
Hindoos  in  science  ?  *  For  what  are  we  indebted  to  them  ? 

A     *  Name  their  most  famous  epics.     *  What   is  known  of  the 
Indian    drama?     *  Who    was   the   most   renowned   dramatic 
writer?     *  About  what  time  did  he  flourish? 
[35]       ART. — Architecture.     What  are  the  principal  monuments  of 

B     Indian   architecture?      What   are   the    most  famous   subterra- 

c  neous  temples?  and  rock-temples?  In  what  respects  do  the 
ancient  buildings  of  India  often,  and  in  what  nearly  always, 
surpass  the  monuments  of  Egypt?  By  what  law  was  the 
attainment  of  excellence  in  sculpture  rendered  almost  impossi- 
ble ?  What  is  known  of  their  progress  in  painting  ?  What  of 
their  attainments  in  music  ? 
[36]  COMMERCE. — How  was  the  home  traffic  of  the  Hindoos  carried 
on  ?  What  were  the  principal  markets  for  domestic  produce  ? 

B     Give  a  general  notion  of  their  foreign  trade  :  1,  to  the  North- 

c  East  ;  2,  to  the  East ;  3,  to  the  West.  *  What  were  the  prin- 
cipal exports? 

§  12.     History  of  the  Babylonians. 

[42]       WThich  was  the   more    ancient   state,  Babylon   or  Assyria? 

o  Who  was  the  founder  of  Babylon  ?  About  what  period  was  it 
founded?  *  Whom  do  the  Greeks  mention  as  the  founders  of 
the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  empires  respectively  ? 

43]       How  many   dynasties  were  there   from  the   deluge   to  the 

D  Persian  conquest  ?  What  was  the  duration  of  the  sixth  ?  Does 
the  statement  of  Berosus  with  regard  to  the  sixth  receive  any 

A  support  from  Herodotus  ?  By  whose  assistance  were  the  Baby- 
lonians delivered  from  the  Assyrian  domination?  When  did 
the  sera  of  Nabonassar  begin?  Did  the  Assyrians  attempt  to 

B  repossess  themselves  of  Babylon?  Who  put  an  end  to  the 
Assyrian  empire  ?  What  countries  were  comprehended  in  the 
western  portion  of  the  empire?  Who  overthrew  the  invader 
Necho  near  Carchemish  ?  What  city  is  supposed  to  be  tho 


44 — 52.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  345 

Carchemish  of  the  Scriptures  ?     Who  succeeded  Nabopolassar  ? 

c  In  his  pursuit  of  the  Eygptians,  how  far  did  this  monarch 
advance  ?  Why  did  Nebuchadnezzar  lay  siege  to  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  ?  How  long  did  the  city  withstand  him  ?  Give  the 
date  of  the  city's  destruction.  Who  was  the  king  of  Judah  at 
this  time  ?  How  were  he  and  his  captive  subjects  treated  ? 

D     What  became  of  those  who    remained   in  Judah  ?     Why  did 
Nebuchadnezzar  wage  war   against    the  Phoenicians  ?     What 
great  undertakings  did  he  enter  upon  after  his  return  ? 
[44]       *  During  Nebuchadnezzar's  madness  by  whom  was  the  go- 
vernment administered  ?     *  In  what  way  did  this  queen  show 

A  her  activity  and  ambition  ?  Who  was  the  last  king  of  Babylon, 
and  what  is  the  name  given  to  him  by  Herodotus  ?  What 
means  did  Cyrus  employ  to  effect  the  fall  of  Babylon  ?  To  what 
condition  was  Babylon  reduced? 

§  13.     Religion,  Literature,  tyc.  of  the  Babylonians. 

'45]       What  was  the  religion  of  the  Shemites,  and  of  the  ardent 

*  B     Asiatics  generally  ?     What  is  meant  by  the  religion  of  nature  ? 

How  does    the    religion  of  the    Hebrews  differ  from   that    of 

c  nature  ?  What  is  the  most  common  idea  of  the  Godhead  among 
Asiatic  nations,  who  profess  the  religion  of  nature  ?  Which  is 
the  active  and  which  the  passive  power  of  nature?  What 
seems  to  have  occasioned  the  grammatical  distinction  of  genders, 

D     as  applied  to  inanimate  objects?     What  may  be  considered  a 

A  later  step  in  the  development  of  material  religion?  What  is 
the  last  step  in  this  notion  ?  Who  were  generally  the  guardian 
deities  of  cities  ?  Who  held  the  first  rank  among  the  Shemitic 

B     divinities  ?     Give  the  signification  of  the  word  Babel. 
[46]       *  Of  the  five    planets,   which   were   considered    beneficent 

c     powers  ?   *  which  destructive  ?  and  which  varied  according  to 
his  position?     *  Did   the  Chaldaeans   place    great  reliance  on 
their  position,  rising,  and  setting  ? 
[47]       What  honors  did  the  king  of  kings  receive  from  his  people  ? 

D  Did  he  govern  responsibly?  How  was  the  empire  divided,  and 
how  governed  ?  Who  were  termed  pre-eminently  "  Chal- 
daeans ?"  Who  were  the  sole  possessors  of  all  the  learning  of 
those  days  ?  How  was  it  communicated  to  members  of  their 
own  caste  ? 
[48]  What  were  the  advantages  of  Babylon  as  a  place  of  trade'? 

A  *  How  was  the  land  trade  carried  on  ?  *  with  what  countries 
eastward  and  westward  ?  *  What  were  their  exports  to  these 
countries  ?  *  How  was  the  trade  on  the  Euphrates  carried  on  ? 
*  How  was  the  maritime  commerce  carried  on  ?  *  and  with  what 
countries  ? 

[49]       What  were  the  principal  arts  and  manufactures  of  the  Baby- 
lonians ? 

§15.     History  of  the  Assyrians. 

[52]       Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  empire  ?     About  what 
B    period  was  the  Assyrian  empire  founded  ?     How  far  did  Semi- 


346  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [53 — 61. 

c     rarais  push  her  conquests?     *  What  was   the  amount  of  the 
forces  which  she  marched  against  the  Indians,  and  what  the 
result  of  the  expedition? 
[53]       Who  succeeded  Semiramis?     When  did  Sardanapalus  ascend 

A  the  throne?  What  was  the  result  of  the  insurrection  of  the 
Babylonians  and  Medes  against  this  monarch  ?  Did  the  Assy- 

B  rian  empire  still  continue  to  subsist?  Does  there  exist  any 
record  of  the  kings  who  succeeded  Sardanapalus  ?  *  Who  com- 
pelled the  Israelites  to  pay  tribute  ? 

[54]       Under  what  king,  and  about  what  period,  did  the  Babylonians 
revolt?     How  were    the  Assyrians   indemnified  for   this  loss? 

c  Why  did  Salmanassar  destroy  the  kingdom  of  Israel  ?  What 
became  of  the  Israelites  afterwards  ?  What  was  the  next  con- 
quest of  this  king  ?  Was  the  siege  of  Tyre  successfully  con- 
ducted ?  *  Does  the  historian  Ctesias's  account  of  the  dissolution 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  correspond  with  that  given  in  the  Bible  ? 

A  About  what  period  did  Sennacherib  ascend  the  throne  ?  What 
success  had  Sennacherib  against  Judah?  Who  succeeded 

B  Sennacherib  ?  About  what  period  ?  Who  was  the  last  king  of 
Assyria?  Who  formed  an  alliance  against  Assyria?  and  with 
what  success?  How  long  did  the  Scythians  keep  possession 
of  Media  ?  About  what  time  was  Nineveh  utterly  destroyed  ? 


§  16.     Religion,  Literature,  <$-c.  of  the  Assyrians. 

[55]       Were  the  Assyrians  remarkable  for  their  civilization  ?     How 

A     for  did  their  religion  resemble  that  of  the  Babylonians  ?     What 

political  constitution  did  the  Assyrian  constitution  resemble  ? 


§  18.     History  of  the  Medes. 

[59]       In  what  author  is  the  earliest  mention  of  the  Medes  found  ? 

A  In  whose  reign  did  the  Medes  emancipate  themselves  from  the 
dominion  of  the  Assyrians,  to  whom  they  had  become  subject? 
Who  first  became  king  of  the  whole  nation  ?  How  long  did  he 
reign?  What  city  did  he  build?  Who  succeeded  Deioces? 
What  nation  did  he  subdue?  What  became  of  him?  Who 

-B  succeeded  Phraortes  ?  What  improvements  did  this  prince  in- 
troduce in  the  army  ?  With  what  king  did  he  form  an  alliance  ? 

c     Who  defeated  Cyaxares  ?     How  far  did  their  conquests  extend  ? 

*  Whilst  the  Scythians  were  dominant  in  Asia,  against  whom 

was  Cyaxares  carrying  on  a  war  ?     What  was  the  pretence  for 

this  aggression  ?     How  was  the  war  terminated  ? 

[60]       Against  whom  did  Cyaxares  turn  his  arms  at  the  departure 

D     of  the   Scythians?     Who  succeeded  Cyaxares?     How  did  he 

A     lose  Persia  ?     Was  he  successful  against  the  rebels  ? 
[61]       Give  Herodotus's  account  of  the  relation  which  Cyrus  bore  to 

B  Aatyages.  According  to  Ctesias,  was  Cyrus  related  to  Asty- 
ages  ?  How  did  Cyrus  treat  Astyages  ?  What  is  Xenophon's 
account  ?  What  confirmation  do  we  receive  of  this  account  ? 


62 — 80.]  OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY.  347 

§  19.     Religion,  Literature,  $-c.  of  the  Medea. 

"62]       What  was  the  religion  of  the  Medes  1     Who  was  the  author 
c     of  this  doctrine  ?     Into  how  many  parts  was  the  Zend-Avesta 

divided  ?     How  many  have  reached  us  1 

[63]       What  are  the  principal  doctrines  taught  in  the  Zend-Avesta  ? 
B     State  the  moral  precepts  taught  in  the  Zend-Avesta.     Into  how 
many  castes  were  the  people  divided  ?    Name  them.    Was  there 
any  limit  to  the  king's  power  1 

[64]       To  whose  care  was  the  code  of  laws  intrusted  1     How  can 

the  great  influence  of  these  persons  be  accounted  for?      Had 

c     they  any  temples?     Could  the  king's  ordinances  be  recalled? 

*  For  what  were  the  Median  stuffs  celebrated  ?     *  With  whom 
were  they  the  favorite  dress? 

§  21.     History  of  the  Persians. 

[75]       On  what  account  were  the  Persians  partly  Nomades  and 

c  partly  agriculturists  ?  How  many  castes  does  Herodotus  enu- 
merate, as  governing  the  inferior  castes  and  supplying  the  higher 
offices  of  state  ?  Which  was  the  most  distinguished  of  these  castes  ? 
After  the  Persians  had  been  subdued  by  the  Median  king  Phra- 
ortes,  did  they  retain  their  own  kings  ?  Name  the  first  king. 
Who  was  the  father,  and  who  the  grandfather  of  Cyrus  ? 
[76]  What  was  the  original  name  of  Cyrus  ?  How  did  he  become 

D  lord  of  the  whole  Persian  empire  ?  Who  was  king  of  Lydia  at 
that  time  ?  What  success  had  Croesus  in  his  attempt  to  avenge 
himself  on  Cyrus  for  the  expulsion  of  his  brother-in-law,  Asty- 

A  ages?  Whom  did  Cyrus  send  to  subdue  the  Greek  cities  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  ?  On  what  terms  were  these  cities  ready  to 
pay  tribute  ?  Did  all  the  Greek  cities  receive  tyrants  ?  What 

B     became  of  the  Phocseans?     Was  Harpagus  successful  in  this 

expedition  against  the  Greek  cities  ? 
[77]       What  were  the  triumphs  of  Cyrus  himself?     What  liberty 

c  was  granted  by  Cyrus  to  the  Jews  ?  *  How  many  different  ac- 
counts are  there  of  the  death  of  Cyrus  ?  *  State  the  substance 
of  them.  Who  was  nominated  the  successor  of  Cyrus  ?  Who 
was  appointed  viceroy  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  empire  ? 
Where  was  Cyrus  buried  ? 
[78]  When  did  Cambyses  begin  to  reign  ?  How  long  did  his  reign 

A  last?  What  additions  did  Cambyses  make  to  the  countries 
already  subdued  by  his  father?  *  Why  did  he  undertake  the 
expedition  against  Egypt  and  Libya  ?  *  What  king  did  he  take 
prisoner,  and  how  did  he  treat  him  ?  *  What  nations  surren- 
dered themselves  voluntarily  to  the  conqueror  ? 
[79]  How  was  the  plan  of  Cambyses  for  extending  his  conquests 

B     in  Africa  rendered  abortive  ?     What  became  of  the  forces  which 

c  he  had  raised  for  this  purpose  ?  *  On  his  return  to  Memphis, 
what  insult  did  he  offer  to  the  worshippers  of  the  god  Apis? 

*  How  did  he  treat  his  brother  Smerdis  ?     Give  an  account  of 
D     his  other  extravagant  acts.     Where  did  he  die? 

J80]  Who  succeeded  Cambyses  ?  Who  was  the  Pseudo-Smerdis 
or  False-Smerdis?  How  did  he  endeavor  to  render  his  usurpa- 


348  QUESTIONS   TO    MANUAL  [81 — 87. 

A    tion  popular?     How  was  the  usurper's  reign  put  an  end  to? 

What  festival  was  instituted  in  commemoration  of  this  event  ? 
[81]       How  came  Darius  to  be  king  of  Persia?     Whose  son  was 

B  he  ?  Trace  the  pedigree  of  Darius  up  to  Cyrus  the  great-grand- 
son of  Achaemenes.  What  improvements  did  Darius  introduce 
into  the  government  ? 

[82]  *  What  were  the  duties  of  the  sattaps  ?  *  By  whom  were 
they  assisted  ?  *  How  do  you  account  for  the  rapidity  of  royal 
mandates  ?  *  How  were  the  civil  and  military  administration  of 
each  province,  as  well  as  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  managed? 

c     *  How  was  the  tribute  paid  ?     *  What  were  the  sources  of  the 

A  revenue  ?  *  How  did  the  inferior  officials  receive  their  remune- 
ration ?  *  How  were  those  of  higher  rank  rewarded  ?  *  How 
were  the  wants  of  the  most  exalted  personages  supplied  ?  In 
what  direction  did  Darius  extend  his  conquests?  and  why? 
*  To  whom  did  Darius  grant  the  power  of  liberating  Samos  ? 
[83]  Give  an  account  of  the  reduction  of  the  revolted  province  of 

B     Babylon  ?     What  reward  did  Zopyrus  receive  for  his  services  ? 

c  Describe  the  expedition  against  the  Scythians  ?  Who  were  left 
in  charge  of  the  bridge  over  the  Ister  ?  What  service  did  His- 
tiaeus  render  Darius  ?  What  submission  did  Amyntas  offer  to 

D     Megabazus  ?     Where  did   Darius  next  turn  his  arms  ?     Who 

was  previously  dispatched  into  that  country  ? 
[84]       About  what  period  did  the  Persian  wars  with  Greece  com- 

A  mence  ?  How  did  Histiaeus  become  an  object  of  suspicion  to 
the  king  ?  On  his  recall  to  Susa,  who  was  appointed  tyrant  of 
Miletus  ?  What  rendered  the  security  of  this  appointment  pre- 
carious ?  What  success  attended  the  combined  efforts  of  An- 

B     stagoras  and  Histiaeus  against  the  Persian  government?     What 
circumstance    hastened    the    commencement  of   the   Persian 
war? 
[85]       Who  conducted  the  first  expedition  of  the  Persians  against 

c  Greece  ?  What  happened  to  this  commander's  fleet  and  army  ? 
Did  Darius  invade  Greece  a  second  time  ?  Under  whose  advice 
did  he  act  ?  Who  commanded  the  expedition  ?  What  was  its 
date  ?  Where  did  they  first  sail  ?  Where  was  the  battle  fought 
between  the  generals  of  Darius  and  the  Athenians  ?  What  were 

A  the  numbers  of  the  respective  forces?  Who  commanded  the 
Athenians  ?  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ?  Did  Darius 
attempt  to  invade  Greece  a  third  time  ?  Who  did  ?  Where  did 

B     his  land  and  naval  forces  assemble  ?    *  Give  a  summary  of  the 

principal  events  during  the  march  of  this  vast  army. 
[86]       Where  did  Xerxes  first  encounter  a  firm  resistance  ?     Who 
withstood  him  ?     Who  betrayed  this  brave  band  ?     How  did 

c     Xerxes  wreak  his  vengeance  on  Athens  ?     What  was  the  result 

D     of  the  battle  of  Artemisium?     Where  was  the   Persian  fleet 
totally  defeated  ?     Give  the  date  of  this  battle.     What  became 
of  Xerxes  ?     Who  was  left  in  charge  of  the  Persian  army  ? 
[87]       What  battles  were  fought?     With  what  success ?     In  which 

A     was  Mardonius  slain  ?     In  these  two  engagements  who  com- 

B  manded  the  Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians  respectively? 
After  these  successes  what  course  did  the  Greeks  take  ?  Who 


88 101.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  349 

c     won  the  battle  of  Eurymedon  1     How  did  Xerxes  meet  with  his 

end  ?     Who  succeeded  him  ? 
[88]       Give  an  account  of  the  Persian  tear  with  the  Egyptians  and 

D     Greeks.     Who  commanded  the  Grecian  fleet  1 
[89]       Why  did  Megabyzus  throw  off  his  allegiance  to  Artaxerxes  1 

A     Account  for  the  frequent  revolts  of  the  satraps.     What  tended 

B  to  extinguish  the  once  martial  spirit  of  the  Persians  ?  Who 
succeeded  Xerxes  1  How  long  did  he  reign  ?  Who  succeeded 

c  Xerxes  II.  ?  Who  succeeded  Sogdianus  ?  Why  was  his  reign 
marked  by  repeated  revolts  of  the  satraps  ?  How  long  did  the 
Egyptians  retain  the  independence  which  they  asserted  success- 
fully in  this  reign  1  Who  succeeded  Darius  II.  1 
[90]  Who  endeavored  to  establish  his  right  to  the  succession  1 
On  what  grounds  1  Under  what  pretext  did  he  march  against 

D  the  reigning  monarch  1  Who  supported  him  ]  Who  warned 
Artaxerxes  of  Cyrus's  real  intentions  ?  What  battle  was  fought  ] 

A     In  what  year  1     What  became  of  the  Greek  auxiliaries  ?     Who 

commanded  them  in  their  retreat  1 

[91]  What  was  the  reward  of  Tissaphernes  for  his  timely  inform- 
ation to  the  king  ?  Who  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
liberation  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  ?  How  were  his  plans  frus- 

B  trated  ?  What  was  his  policy  1  What  Spartan  general  fell  at 
Haliartus  1  Who  took  the  command  in  the  Corinthian  war  1 
Where  did  Conon  defeat  the  Lacedaemon'ans  ?  What  became 

c     of  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  during  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  ? 

*  Why  did  the  attempt  to  reconquer  Egypt  miscarry  1     *  Who 

poisoned  Artaxerxes  II  1  *  and  who  succeeded  Artaxerxes  II.  7 

[92]       Did  this  prince  succeed  in  suppressing  the  revolt  of  of  the  Phoe- 

A  nicians  and  Egyptians  ?  Who  was  king  of  Egypt  1  What  became 
of  him  1  Who  poisoned  Artaxerxes  and  all  his  sons  except  one  ? 

B  Who  succeeded  him  1  What  was  his  fate  ?  Who  succeeded 
Arses  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Bagoas  1  Enumerate  the  three 
great  victories  of  Alexander  over  Darius.  Give  the  three  dates 
respectively.  Who  murdered  Darius  1  *  What  were  the  causes 
of  the  decline  of  the  Persian  empire  1 

[93]       Give  some  account  of  the  religion  of  the  Persians. 
[94]       From  whom  was  the  Persian  constitution  borrowed  ?     What 
was  its  character  !      Was  there  any  limit  to  the  power  of  the 

A  "  Great  King?"  From  whom  did  he  receive  tribute  1  Where  were 
his  palaces  situated  1  Through  whom  were  all  communications 
conveyed  to  the  king  1  Who  exercised  an  influence  over  the  ad- 
ministration of  public  affairs,  and  even  over  the  succession  to  the 

B     throne  1     What  was  deemed  necessary  to  secure  the  possession 
of  conquered  countries?     Was  the  constitution  allowed  to  re- 
main unchanged  1      How  was  their  dependence  on  Persia  re- 
cognized 1 
[95]       To  what  was  the  Persian  literature  confined  ?     Have  any  re- 

c     mains  of  Persian  architecture  been  discovered  ? 

§  25.  Fragments  of  Phoenician  History. 

[1011     To  what  race  did  the  Phoenicians  belong  1     Who  alone  with- 
*    stood  the  invasions  of  the  Nomadic  tribes  and  the  Israelites  ? 


350  QUESTIONS    TO    MANUAL  [102 122. 

B     Who  was  king  of  Tyre  in  the  days  of  Solomon  ?     When  did 

Tyre  and  Sidon  become  separated  ? 

[102]     *  What  mention  is  made  of  Sidon  by  Homer  ?      *  For  what 

c     was  it  famous  and  also  notorious  ?     *  Name  its  earliest  foreign 

settlements.    *  Why  did  Nebuchadnezzar  destroy  Sidon  ?    *  Did 

it  become  again  prosperous  ?      *  What  led  to  its  ruin  a  second 

time  1 

[103]     *  Was  Tyre  or  Sidon  the  older  city  ?      *  At  how  early  a 
D     period  did  Tyre  become  remarkable  for  its  wealth  and  power  ? 

*  To  whom  was  Solomon  indebted  for  assistance  in  building  the 
Temple  1      *  Who  founded  Carthage  ?      *  About  what  time  ? 

*  Against  whom  did  Tyre  maintain  its  independence  1 

[104]  Under  the  Persian  dominion  did  the  Phoenician  cities  retain 
A  their  own  kings  1  If  so,  on  what  conditions  ?  Did  the  Phoeni- 
cians assist  in  any  of  the  Persian  and  Grecian  wars  ?  What 
effect  had  the  fame  of  Alexander's  arms  on  the  cities  of  Phoeni- 
cia generally  1  How  long  did  Tyre  hold  out  against  Alexander  I 
What  damaged  the  future  prosperity  of  Tyre  ? 

§  26.  Religion,  $-c.  of  the  Phoenicians. 

[105]     Why  are  we  to  consider  the  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  as  a 
B     subject  of  unusual  importance  I     Describe  their  religion.     Why 
c     were  the  sun  and  moon  worshipped  ?      What  names  did  they 
give  to  the  sun  ?     What  suggested  to  them  the  idea  of  separate 
D     deities?      How  did   they  believe  that   the  supreme  Being  go- 
A     verned  the  world  ?     Who  was  this  manifestation  of  Baal  ? 
[106]     Enumerate  some  of  the  principal  inventions  of  the  Phoenicians. 
[107]     Was  their  maritime  trade  extensive  1     What  was  this  owing 
B     to  1     Name  the  chief  goals  of  their  maritime  enterprise.     What 
c     were  the  chief  imports  1      Which  of  their  voyages  were  kept 
secret  ?     What  voyage  did  the  king  of  Egypt  prevail  on  them 
to  undertake  ?    *  What  obstructed  the  commercial  intercourse  of 
the  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  ?      *  What  Phoenician  articles  were 
D     imported  by  the  Greeks?      *  Give  a  general  account  of  their 
Arabian  and  Egyptian  land  traffic.     *  What  was  imported  by 
A     them  from  Palestine  and  Syria?    *  what  from  Armenia  and  the 
Caucasian  countries  ?     *  By  what  means  was  the  trade  of  Phoe- 
nicia principally  carried  on  ? 

What  are  we   to  understand  by  the  term  Tyrian  purple? 
**or  what  other  manufactures  were  the  Tyrians  celebrated  ? 

§  28.  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lydia. 

[119]     Who  were   the  original   inhabitants  of  Lydia?      Into  how 
D     many  dynasties  is  the  history  of  the  Lydian  sovereigns  divided  ? 
State  the  extent  of  the  conquests  of  Crcesus.     What  caused  the 
ruin  of  this  monarch  ? 

[120]     In  the  conversation  between  Crcesus  and  Solon  the  Athenian, 
A     whom  did  the  latter  pronounce  the  happiest  of  men  ?      What 
battle  took  place  between  Crcesus  and  Cyrus,  and  with  what 
B     result  ?     How  was  the  life  of  Croesus  saved  on  two  occasions  ? 
How,  and  by  whom,  was  Cyrus  advised  to  secure  the  subjection 
of  the  Lydians? 
[121]     What  his'ory  remains  to  us  of  the  other  states  1 


122 — 145.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  351 

AFRICA. 

[122]     By  what  name  was  Africa    known    to    the  Greeks?     Hovf 
c     much  of  it  was  known  to  them  ?     Give  a  general  account  of  the 
peculiar  features  of  this  quarter  of   the   globe.     What  are  the 
A     principal  disadvantages  it  has  to  contend  with  ?     What  are  the 
great  obstacles  to  communication  with  the  interior  1     What  pro- 
gress has  Africa  made  in  civilization  1 

§  34.  The  State  of  Meroe. 

[130]     Give  a  summary  account  of  the  history  of  the  ancient  state 

B     of  Meroe.     How  soon  did  it  attain  considerable  importance  ? 

c     What  was  the  advantage  of  its  position  I     When  did  the  power 
of  its  priests  cease  1     What  traces  were  there  of  this  kingdom 
in  Nero's  time  1 
[131]     What  was  the  character  of  the  Ethiopian  religion  ?     How  is 

A  the  similarity  between  the  Ethiopian  and  Egyptian  systems  of 
worship  testified  1  In  what  respect  did  the  religion  of  the 
Ethiopians  resemble  the  religion  of  Brahma  ?  Under  what  con- 
stitution did  the  Ethiopians  live  ?  How  was  the  power  of  the 

B  monarch  restricted  1  What  ruins  of  Temples  are  found  in 
Ethiopia?  What  difference  is  observable  in  the  style  of  the 
ancient  and  the  more  recent  Ethiopian  Temples?  Do  the 
Ethiopian  works  of  art  bear  any  resemblance  to  the  Egyptian  ? 

c     For   what    countries  was    Meroe    th*  great  centre  of  traffic? 

*  How  was  this  traffic  conducted?     *  Which  were  the  three 
principal  establishments  of  the  priestly  caste.? 

§  36.  History  of  the  Egyptians. 

[142]     Who  founded  the  most  ancient  states  of  Egypt  ?     Which  was 

c     the  most  ancient  and  the  mightiest  ?     During  the  period  anterior 

to  Sesostris   how  many  dynasties  are    said  to  have  filled  the 

throne  ?     *  Who  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 

A     king  ?   *  Who  built  Memphis  ?   *  How  many  sovereigns  followed 

him  ?     *  Who  was   the    builder   of  Thebes  and  Osimandyas  ? 

*  How  early  did  Abraham  found  a  kingdom  established  in  Upper 
Egypt  ?     *  Where  did  Joseph  probably  live  when  in  Egypt  ? 

[143]  What  was  the  most  important  event  of  the  first  period? 
Who  are  the  Hyksos  supposed  to  have  been  ?  What  accounts 
B  for  the  blank  in  the  early  history  of  Egypt  ?  Who  expelled  the 
Hyksos  ?  *  To  whom  does  Herodotus  ascribe  the  excavation  of 
the  lake  Moeris  and  the  building  of  its  two  pyramids  ?  *  What 
colonies  were  established  about  this  period?  *  Were  the 
Israelites  then  in  Egypt  ? 

[144]     How    are   the    mighty   conquests   ascribed  by  tradition  to 
c     Sesostris  limited  by  Herodotus?     How  did   the   range   of  his 
A     reputation  become  extended  ?     Mention  the  chief  acts  for  im- 
proving the  country  introduced  by  this  monarch.     Did  his  suc- 
cessors long  retain  the  territory  acquired  in  Asia  and  Europe  1 
How  far  did  the  authority  of  the  later  Pharaohs  extend  ? 
"145]     What  Egyptian  king  is  mentioned  as  having  made  war  on 
B     Rehoboam  ? 

16* 


352  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [146 — 156. 

[146]     Give  the  date  of  Sabaco's  invasion   of  the  country.     How 

c     did  the  warrior-caste  treat  Sethos,  and  why  ?     How  was  the 

D     invader  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  ?     How  was  Egypt  gov- 

A    erned    after    Sethos  ?     How    long  did   the    Dodecarchy   last  ? 

Who  re-established  the  monarchy  I     By  whom  was  he  assisted  ? 

[147]     How  did   Psammetichus  offend   the   wa rrior- caste  I     What 

B     was  the  consequence  of  this  quarrel  ?     From  this  period  who 

c    formed  the  flower  of  the  Egyptian  army  ?     How  long  did  the 

siege  of  Azotus  last  1     What  city  became  the  usual  residence  of 

the  sovereign  1     From  whom  did  the  caste  of  the  interpreters 

spring  1 

[148]     Who  succeeded  Psammetichus  ?     What  body  of  troops  did 

D     this  prince  encourage  1     What  great  canal  project  was  attempted 

in  this  reign?     What  expedition  did  he  undertake,  and  with  what 

success  1     How  did  he  carry  out  the  plans  of  conquest  set  on  foot 

by  his  father  1     Who  circumnavigated  Africa  about  this  time  1 

[149]     Who    succeeded    Necho  ?     What  expedition  did  he  under- 

A     take? 

[150]     Who  succeeded  Psammis  ?     How  did  he  show  his  warlike 
disposition?     What   accusation  was   brought   against   Apries? 
B     What  became  of  Apries  ? 

[151]     Who  was  then  called  to  the  throne?     Why  was  this  prince 

lightly   esteemed  ?      How   did    he  endeavor   to   propitiate   the 

c     priesthood  ?     How  did  he  establish  his  authority  on  a  firm  basis  ? 

When  did  he  die  ? 
[152]     Who  succeeded  him?     What  was  Egypt  reduced  to  under 

this  prince  ? 

[153]     What  excited  a  spirit  of  national  hatred  against  the  Persians? 
A     How  was  it  rendered  comparatively  easy  for  the  Egyptians  to 
throw  off  their  allegiance  to  Persia  ?     In  whose  reigns  were  the 
efforts  to  throw  off  the  Persian  yoke  made  ?     What  success  at- 
tended them  ?     When  did  Egypt  become  a  Macedonian  province  ? 

§  37.  Religion,  #c.  of  the  Egyptians. 

[154]     Did  the  objects  of  worship  differ  in  different  Nomes  ?    Mention 
B    some  of  the  animals  which  were  objects  of  worship ;  and  the 

care  that  was  taken  of  them.  Name  the  inanimate  objects  of 
c  worship.  Enumerate  the  local  divinities.  Did  the  religion  of  the 

priests  differ  from  that  of  the  people  ?  On  what  peculiar  notion 
A  did  their  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  depend  ?  What 

excluded  the  dead  from  being  admitted  into  the  realms  of  the 

blessed  ?     How  was   the    right    to   these   honors  ascertained  ? 

Were  there  any  oracles  ? 

[155]     What  do  the  Nomes  appear  originally  to  have  been  ? 
[156]     What  were  the  seven  castes?     Where  had  the  priestly  caste 
B     its  principal  stations?     How  was  the  hierarchy  supplied  with 

priests  ?     What  offices  were  filled  by  the  priestly  caste  ?     How 

was  their  income  derived  ?  What  do  you  observe  further  of  them  ? 
c  Where  were  the  warrior-caste  settled?  and  why?  Of  what 
D  did  the  army  consist  ?  Where  were  the  herdsmen  settled  ?  What 
A  is  known  about  the  caste  of  the  swineherds  ?  What  did  the  castt 


157 — 170.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  353 

of  tradesmen  comprise  1  Were  these  employments  hereditary  or 
not  1  What  caste  was  of  especial  importance  1  Who  formed 
the  medium  of  communication  between  the  Egyptians  and 
foreigners  1 

'157]  What  name  was  common  to  the  kings  of  Egypt  ?  How  was 
B  their  power  circumscribed  1  Name  the  several  residences  of 
their  kings.  How  were  their  revenues  derived  ?  Who  com- 
manded the  army  in  time  of  war  1  How  were  judicial  questions 
investigated  I  How  were  the  proceedings  conducted,  and 
sentence  given? 

[158]     What  were   the  sciences   cultivated   by  the  priestly  caste? 

c     How  was  Astronomy  applied!      What   rendered  Geometry  so 

necessary  a  science  ?     What  were  the  restrictions  placed  on  the 

A     medical  profession  ?    In  what  did  the  Historical  learning  of  the 

Egyptians  consist  ? 

*159]  Of  what  do  the  monuments  of  Egypt  exhibit  great  proofs? 
What  prevented  the  Egyptian  artists  from  rising  to  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  beautiful  ? 

*160J     How  were  architecture  and  sculpture  connected? 

*16l]     Name  the  chief  objects  of  art.     How  were  the  walls  of  the 

c     Temples   adorned?     Describe  the  interior  of  the   Catacombs. 

What  was  the  form  of  an  Obelisk  ?     What  was  their  average 

height  and  base  ?    Where  were  they  hewn  and  polished  ?    How 

D     were  they  conveyed  to  their  destination?     Where   were  they 

placed  ?     *  What  became  of  several  of  these  Obelisks  ?     Where 

A     are  the  Pyramids  only  found?     Describe  them.     What  is  the 

B     name  of  the  largest  ?     What  was  its  height  originally,  and  what 

is  it  now?     Mention  the  particulars  that  are  known  with  regard 

to  this  pyramid.    How  many  pyramid?  are  there  near  Memphis, 

and  what  is  their  position  ?  Which  is  the  most  celebrated  group  ? 

c     For  what  were  these  huge  massed  probably  reared  ?     What  did 

a  Sphinx  represent?     What  Droves  the  accurate  astronomical 

knowledge  of  the  Egyptians?      Where  were  Sphinxes  chiefly 

jbund,  and  in  what  numbers  ?    Who  built  the  Labyrinth  ?    Give 

some  account  of  it. 

[162]     What  is  our  knowledge  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions? 
*163]     How  were  tte  hieroglyphical  characters  employed?     How 

*  A    many  styles  &  kinds  of  hieroglyphics  were  used  ?     How  were 

the  hieratic  characters  employed  ?  how  the  demotic  ? 
"164]     What  compelled  the  Egyptians  to  confine  themselves  to  in- 

*  B     land  and  river  traffic  ?     What  rendered  Egypt  the  centre  of  an 

extensive  commerce  by  means  of  caravans  ?     How  were  corn 

and  cloth  transported  from  Egypt  into  Arabia  and  Syria  ?    Who 

c    extended  the  commercial  relations  of  Egypt  ?  and  how  ?     What 

was  the  consequence  of  these  arrangements  ? 

U65]  How  is  our  knowledge  of  Egyptian  handicrafts  obtained? 
Enumerate  the  principal  arts  of  the  Egyptians. 

§  40.     History  of  the  Carthaginians. 

[170]     Why  did  the  Phoenicians  select  the  northern  coast  of  Africa 
c    for   the    establishment   of   a    colony?     When    was    Carthage 
founded  ?    By  whom  ? 


854  QUESTIONS    TO   MANUAL  [171 181. 

[  1 7 1 J     What  is  the  legendary  account  of  the  founda  tion  of  Carthage  1 
[172]     How  did  Carthage  extend  itself?     What  important  voyages 

A     were  undertaken  I     Who  made  an  attempt  against  Carthage  ? 
[173]     What  was  the  first  step  towards  the  downfall  of  the  Car- 

B     thaginians?     Did  the  Carthaginians  choose  an  opportune  mo- 

c     ment  for  the  subjugation  of  Sicily?     What  success  had  they? 

On  what  terms  was  a  peace  granted  ? 
[174]     What  occasioned  fresh  hostilities?      Did  the  Carthaginians 

D  secure  a  firmer  foot  again  in  the  island  ?  Did  the  Syracusans 
attempt  to  throw  off"  their  subjection  to  the  Carthaginians? 
What  success  attended  their  efforts  ? 

175]     Who  was  Agathocles?    Give  an  account  of  the  war  between 

"c     him   and  the  Carthaginians.      What   course    did    the    Cartha- 

giniana  take  on  the  death  of  Agathocles  ?     Who  was  Pyrrhus  ? 

How  was  he  ruined  in  Sicily  ? 

[176]     What  was  the  result  of  the  first  war  between  the  Romans 

D  and  Carthaginians?  What  troops  were  employed  in  this  war? 
Why  did  these  troops  mutiny  ?  and  what  was  the  result  of  the 

A  mutiny  ?  Who  brought  this  insurrection  to  a  satisfactory  termi- 
nation ?  What  possessions  did  the  Romans  acquire  during  this 
war  ?  Why  were  proceedings  taking  against  Hamilcar  I  How 
did  the  accused  repel  the  charge  ?  What  two  parties  sprang  up 
about  this  time  ?  What  was  the  first  step  towards  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Carthaginian  constitution  ? 

[177]     What  did  Hamilcar  do  in  order  to  indemnify  his  country  fbi 

B  the  loss  of  her  best  provinces  ?  Who  succeeded  Hamilcar  in 
the  command  1  What  success  had  these  generals  in  Spain? 
How  was  a  period  put  to  their  conquests  in  that  quarter  ?  Who 
founded  Carthago  Nova?  What  was  the  fate  of  Hasdrubal  f 
Who  succeeded  him  in  the  command  ? 

[178]     What  occasioned  the  second  war  with  Rome?     Who  was  to 

A  have  supported  Hannibal  itv  a  new  war  with  Rome  ?  Who  be- 
trayed his  project  ?  What  did  Hannibal  do  ?  What  was  his 
end  ?  Who  now  started  hostilix^s  with  the  Carthaginians  ?  Of 

B  what  provinces  did  he  deprive  them  ?  To  what  straits  were  the 
Carthaginians  reduced  ? 

[179]  How  did  the  third  Punic  war  terminate  ?  *  Who  founded  a 
new  city  near  the  ruins  of  Carthage  ?  *  How  did  it  rise  in  im- 
portance ?  *  When  was  it  destroyed?  *  What  town  was  built 
from  its  ruins  ? 

§  41.     Religion,  $c.  of  the  Carthaginians. 

[180]     What    was  the    character  of   the    Carthaginian    leligion? 

D  *  Who  were  the  chief  divinities  of  the  Carthaginians  ?  *  Which 
was  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar  residence  of  Melkarth  ?  *  How 
then  did  the  Carthaginians  show  their  homage  ?  «  What  sacri- 
fices were  offered  to  Moloch?  *  Whom  did  the  god  Esmun  re- 

A    semble?      *  Did    the  Carthaginians  confine    themselves  to  the 

worship  of  the  gods  of  the  mother  country  ? 
[181]     What  was   the    nature  of   the   Carthaginian   government? 

B  How  was  a  difference  of  opinion  between  the  kings  and  the 
Bcnate  settled  ?  What  power  did  the  kings  possess?  Why  waa 


182 231.]  OP    ANCIENT    HISTORY.  355 

c     the  council  or  college  of  a  hundred  established?     What  power 
had  they  ?     Was  there  any  other  college  appointed  ?     How  were 
their  magistrates  chosen  1 
'182]     *  What  were  the  sources  of  revenue? 

[183]     *  Of  how  many  vessels  did  their  naval  force,  before  their 
D     wars  with  the  Romans,  consist  ?     *  What  amount  of  naval  force 
was  employed  against  Regulus  ?     *  Of  what  troops  did   their 
army  consist  ? 

[184]     What   account  can    you   give   of   Carthaginian   literature? 
B     What  sciences  attained  a  high  state  of  perfection  1     What  was 
the  language  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

Did  the  Carthaginians  allow  an  open  trade  to  their  «olonies  ? 
Why  not  ?     How   was   the   intercourse   with   foreign  countries 
c     facilitated  ?     What  was  the  extent  of  their  navigation  ?     What 
trade  did  they  share  with  the  mother  country  beyond  the  Pillars 
A     of  Hercules  ?     What  coast  was  secretly  visited  on  the  western 

side  of  Africa  ? 

[186]  *  What  were  the  chief  exports  and  imports  of  Carthage? 
How  was  the  internal  traffic  conducted  ?  What  was  brought 
from  the  interior  of  Africa  1 


[ie\ 


EUROPE. 

[187]  What  advantages  does  Europe  possess  over  all  the  other 
B  quarters  of  the  globe  1  In  what  respects  is  it  inferior  to  Asia 
c  and  America  ?  What  compensates  for  these  points  of  inferiority  ? 

What  greatly  facilitates  its  commercial  intercourse  ?     How  is 

Europe  indebted  to  the  East  ?  In  what  respect  may  Europe  be 
A  considered  superior  to  the  rest  of  the  world  ?  How  has  their 
B  excellence  in  arts  and  arms  been  displayed  ?  How  is  Europe 

naturally  divided  ?      What   remarkable   distinctions   are   there 

between  eastern  and  western  Europe  ? 

§  53.   The  earliest  Population  of  Greece. 

"230]     Who  were  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece  ?     Were 

A     they   spread   over   any   other    countries  ?      *  How   had    they, 

probably,  already  acquired  a  degree  of  civilization  ?     *  Where 

B     did  they  send  out  colonies  to  ?     How   was   the  appellation  of 

Hellenes  used  originally]      What  names   were    applied  to  the 

people  collectively  1     Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Grecian  race, 

and  of  its  principal  tribes? 

'231]     How  soon  are  the  legendary  foreign   immigrations  said  to 

B     have  commenced?     Give  some  account  of  Cecrops.     Who  was 

Cadmus?     Give  some  account  of  him.     What  improvements  did 

c     he  introduce  into  Thebes  ?     Who  migrated  to  Argos?     *  What 

became  of  the  fifty  sons  of  ^Egyptus  ?     When  did  Pelops  come 

from  Phrygia  to  Arcadia  ?     Who  extended  his  dominion  1 


356  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [232 — 2 

§  54.     Myths  concerning  the  Migrations  of  the  Hellenic 

Tribes. 

[232]     What  story  is  related  of  Deucalion  1     Who  is  said  to  have 

A     succeeded  Deucalion  on  the  throne  ?  and  who  Hellen  1    How  did 

B     the  ^Eolians  spread  themselves  1     How  did  the  Dorians  spread 

themselves  ?    What  success  attended  the  youngest  son  of  Hellen  ? 

What  sons  had  he  1     Name  the  four  phylae  then  established. 

§  55.   The  Heroic  Age. 

\233]     What  effect  did  the  wanderings  of  the  Hellenic  tribes  pro- 

D     duce  1     What  was  the  natural  consequence  of  political  division 

A     into  separate  nations  1      *  How  is  Hercules  described  in  mythical 

history  1     *  Who   persecuted,  and  who   protected   him  ?     *  At 

whose  command  does  Hercules  undertake  his   twelve    labors? 

c     *  Enumerate  these.     *  What  became  of  Hercules?     *  Who  was 

Theseus'?     *  How   does  he   show  himself  a  benefactor  to  the 

human  race  ?     *  Who  was  his  protector  ? 

[234]     Give  an  account  of  the  Argonautic  expedition.     Whence  did 
A     the  Hellespont  derive  its  name  ?     Name  the  most   renowned 

heroes  who  accompanied  this  expedition. 

[235]     What  led  to  the  exposure  of  QEdipus  on  Mount  Cithaeron  1 

c     What  crime  did  he  inadvertently  commit  1     How  did  he  show 

his  horror  on  the  discovery  1  Who  were  his  sons  1     Name  the 

D    heroes  who-accompanied  Polynices  against  Thebes.     What  was 

the  result  of  it  1 

[236]     Why  was  the  war  of  the  Epigoni  undertaken  ? 
[237]     How  did  the  war  against  Troy  originate  1    At  whose  instiga- 
tion was  this  contest  undertaken  1     Name  the  principal  leaders 
B     engaged  in  it.     What  was  the  amount  of  the  forces  ?     What 
detained   them   at   Aulis  1     How  were  they  released  ?     What 
c     time  did  the  siege  last  1     *  What  was  their  mode  of  warfare  ? 
*  Why  did  Achilles  refuse,  after  a  time,  to  take  any  part  in  the 
war? 

[238]     What  was  the  fate  of  Agamemnon  after  his  return  1     Give  an 

D     account  of  Orestes.     Where   did   Menelaus   wander  1     What 

A     became  of  Diomedes  ?     What  was  the  form  of  government  that 

prevailed  in  the  heroic  age  ?  What  offices  did  the  kings  hold  ? 

How  was  their  revenue  obtained  ?     Who  were  the  counsellors  of 

B     the  kings  ?     Why  were  assemblies  of  the  people  called  1     *  In 

many  of  the  Grecian  states  what  does  the  king  seem  to  have 

been  1     *  How  was  Attica  divided  by  Theseus  1      *  How  did 

aristocratic  constitutions  arise  1 

§  56.     The  Migration  of  the  Dorians,  or  Heraclida. 
[239]     Who  gave  the  name  of  Thessaly  to  Pelasgicon?      What  be- 
c     came  of  the  aborigines  of  the  district  afterwards  named  Bceotia  1 
A     How   did  they  treat   the  ancient  inhabitants  1      Why  was  the 
conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians  undertaken  ?     Who 
B     headed  this  expedition  ?     What  was  its  success  ?     How  were  the 
conquered  districts  divided?     How  happened  it  that  Attica  re- 
tained her  independence  ?     How  much  of  this  account  seems 
c     to  be  historically  certain  7     Were  other  Doric  kingdoms  founded? 


240 — 247.]  OP  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  357 

Who   alone    continued    to   occupy  their    ancient    habitations? 
What  was  the  fate  of  the  Acheeans  ? 

§  57.   The  Greek  Colonies  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 

and  the  adjacent  islands. 

240]     By  what  was  the  movement  of  the  Heraclldae  followed  ?     To 
A    what  country  or  countries  did  the  expelled  Achaeans  migrate  ? 

Enumerate  the  cities  of  note  founded  by  them. 

[241]     Where  did  the  lonians  betake  themselves?     What  was  their 
B     common  bond  of  union  ?     Name  the  most  considerable  cities 
c     they  raised.     Who  burnt  the  famous  temple  of  Artemis  ? 
[242]     Where  did  the  Dorians  emigrate  ?     Where  was  Herodotus 
D     born  ? 

§  58.     Origin  of  Republican  Constitutions. 

[243]     What  caused  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  individuals  to  ex- 

A  pire  ?  What  constitutions  followed  the  regal  ?  Where  did  two 
kings  continue  to  reign  ?  Where  was  the  monarchical  constitution 
retained  ?  Was  Greece  united,  or  split  into  independent  states  ? 

B  How  were  the  different  independent  cities  united?  What  ad- 
vantage attended  this  arrangement  ?  What  occasioned  the 
establishment  of  Tyrants  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  term  t  y  r  o  n  t  ? 

c     How  did  this  kind  of  tyranny  arise  in  those  states  which  were 

not  exclusively  Dorian  ? 
[244]     *  What  changes  of  constitution  were   experienced   by  Co- 

D     rinth?     *  What  Corinthian  colonies  were  founded  during  this 
period  ?     What  institutions  served  to  unite  the  little  independent 
states  into  which  Greece  was  divided  ? 
[245]     What  were  the  Amphictyoniae  ?     How  did  they  differ  from 

A     the  ordinary  confederacies  ?     Which  was  the  most  celebrated  ? 

B  How  was  the  term  subsequently  used?  What  altered  its 
original  character  ?  What  privileges  belonged  to  the  Amphic- 

c  tyons  ?  What  oracle  obtained  influence  through  its  connection 
with  the  Amphictyons  ?  How  was  the  Amphictyonia  super- 
seded ?  From  this  period  to  what  were  the  duties  of  the  con- 

D     federacy  restricted  ?     Of  what  avail  were  its  exertions  now  ? 
[246]     Were  the  congresses  exclusive  ?     Which  were  the  most  re- 

B  nowned  of  all  the  games  ?  Who  founded  them  ?  Who  revived 
them  ?  From  what  time  was  a  regular  record  kept  of  the  con- 
querors ?  Where  were  the  games  celebrated  ?  and  how  ?  How 

c  was  the  ceremonial  closed  ?  *  Name  the  exercises  of  the  Pen- 
tathlon. *  What  was  meant  by  Pancration?  *  What  rendered 
the  Olympic  Panegyris  favorable  for  public  advertisements,  and 
the  exhibition  of  works  of  art  ?  *  How  were  the  victors  re- 

D  warded  on  the  spot  ?  and  how  at  home  1  Name  the  other  great 
national  games.  Where  were  they  severally  kept,  and  in 
honor  of  whom  1 

§  59.     Sparta. 

1 24 7J     How  was  the  throne  of  Sparta  always  occupied  1     How  long 
did  the  contest  with  the  Achasans  continue  1     Which  was  of  all 


358  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [248 — 257. 

these  straggles  the   most  obstinate  ?     What  character  did  the 
c     population  of  Laconia  assume  ?     Who  were  the  Helots  1     Give 
D     some  account  of  them.     Who  was  Lycurgus  ?     At  whose  re- 
quest did  Lycurgus  give  his  native  city  a  constitution  ?     Were 
A     the  kings  retained  ?     What  were  their  functions  ?     What  privi- 
leges did  they  enjoy  1     How  was  the  government  administered  ? 
How  were  they  elected  1     What  were  the  duties  of  this  council  ? 
[248]     What   power  had  the  popular   assembly  ?     How  were  the 
c     Ephori  chosen  ?     What  were  their  duties  ?     How  did  Lycurgua 

apportion  the  lands  ? 

[249]     To  what  were  the  regulations  of  Lycurgus  with  respect  to 

A     education  and  domestic  life  directed  ?     How  were  the  strong 

B     children   brought    up  1      Why    did    Lycurgus    institute  'public 

meals  1     What    was    the    only  circulating    medium    allowed  ? 

What  was  the  chief  occupation  of  the  free  citizen  ?     How  were 

the    Perioeci   employed  ?    and  the    Helots  1     What   course  did 

Lycurgus  take  to  secure  permanence  to  his  laws  ? 

§  60.     The  two  first  Messenian  Wars. 

[250]     Narrate  the  legend  concerning  the  cause  of  the  first  Messe- 

A    nian  war.     How  did  the  Spartans  commence  the  war  ?     Who 

assisted  the  Messenians  in  this  struggle  ]     Who  commanded  the 

Messenians  1     What  followed  his  death  1     *  What  became  of 

the  Parthenii  ? 

[251]     What  roused  the  next  generation  of  Messenians  to  insurrec- 

C     tion  ]     Who  assisted  them  ?     Who  commanded  the  forces  on 

each  side  ?     How  long  did  they  keep  possession  of  the  fortress 

D     of  Ira  ?     How    did  Aristomenes   escape  from   prison  ?     Why 

were  the  Messenians  compelled  to  abandon  their  post  1     What 

was  the  plan  of  Aristomenes  1     What  became  of  most  of  the 

Messenians  1 

§61.     Athens. 

[252]     Is  the  catalogue  of  Athenian  sovereigns  until  the  reign  of 

A     Theseus  of  any  value  1     When  does  the  historical  period  of 

Athens  begin  1     What  arrangements  of  the  people  did  he  intro- 

B     duce?     Who  was  Melanthus?     Who  were  the  sons  of  Codrus? 

What  afforded  the  Eupatridac  an  opportunity  of  abolishing  the 

kingly  office  ?     What  became  of  Neleus  ?     Who  were  made 

chief  magistrates  ?     To  whom  were  they  responsible  ?     Under 

what  title  ? 

[254]     How   long   did   the  Archonship   remain  in   the  family   of 

c     Codrus  ? 

[255]     When  were  nine  annual  Archons  first  elected  ?     What  title 
D     had  the  first  of  these  1  the  second  ?  the  third  ?     How  were  the 
remaining  six  named  ?     Why  was  a   system  of  written  laws 
A     called  for  by  the  people  or  commonalty  1     Who  was  commis- 
sioned to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws  1 

[256]     *  Who    attempted   to   make   himself  absolute    at  Athens  ? 
*  Who  put  to  death  the  partisans  of  Cylon  ?     *  Why  were  the 
Alcmaeonidse  compelled  to  quit  the  city  ? 
[257J     *  What   measures   did  Solon   introduce    in   order   to   re- 


258 271.]  OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY.  359 

move   the   misunderstanding  between    the  Eapatrids   nnd    the 
c     Demos  ?      How   was    Salamis    recovered    to   the    Athenians  ? 
How  was  its  possession    finally  secured  to   his    countrymen? 
D     What  caused  the  first  Sacred  War  ?     How  were  the  Crisajans 
punished  I     What  factions  now  sprung  up  in  Attica?     What 
A     forms  of  government  did  these  factions  respectively  advocate  ? 
Why  was  the  sovereign  authority  offered  to  Solon  ?     What  fol- 
lowed his  refusal  ? 

;]258]     What  were  the  measures  adopted  by  Solon  ? 
[259]     *  Who  were  the  persons  excluded  from  civil  rights  ?     *  What 
B     was  the  condition  of  the  HITOIKOI  1     *  How  was  the  condition  of 

the  slaves  improved  ? 

[260]     How  was  a  democratic  character  given  to  the  constitution  of 

c     Solon?     How  were    the    citizens    divided?     Which  class  was 

eligible  to  the  Archonship?     Were  the  other  offices   of  state 

A     open  to  the  other  classes  ?     What  was    the   effect  of   Solon's 

measures  ?     *  What  classes  served  in  the  cavalry  ?     *  What  as 

heavy  »nd  light  armed  troops  ? 

[261]     Frcm  what  class  were  the  Archons  chosen?     What  exam- 
B     ination  were  they  required  to  undergo  before  entering  on  their 

office  ? 

[262]  What  number  of  members  constituted  the  senate  at  dif- 
ferent periods?  How  were  they  chosen?  What  were  their 
various  functions  ? 

[2G3]     How  often  was  the    assembly  of  the    people  held?     What 
c     was  the  nature  of  the  questions  they  decided  ?     How  did  they 

vote? 

[264]     Who  composed  the  court  of  Areopagus  ?     Where  were  its 

A     sittings  held  ?     What    duties  were    committed    to    this   court  ? 

B     *  How  were  the  lower  courts  of  justice  formed  ?     What  respect 

was  shown  to  Solon's  laws  ?     Did  his  measures  allay  the  factious 

spirit  of  his  time  ? 

[265]     What   means    did    Pisistratus   use    to   become    absolute    in 

Athens  ?     Did  he  obtain  the  confidence  of  the  people  ? 
[266]     How  was   the   government    afterwards   carried    on  ?     Who 
c     assassinated    Hipparchus?     From    what    motives?      How  was. 
the  administration  conducted  after  this  event?     Who  expelled 
Hippias  ?     Where  did  Hippias  seek  an  asylum  ? 
[267]     Who   now  established    the    democracy  ?     How  did    he  en- 
A     deavor  to  obliterate  all  historical  family  reminiscences  ?     Who 
attempted  to  overthrow  the  new  constitution  ?     Who  supported 
B     him  ?     Why  ?     Did  this  attempt  succeed  ?     What  was  Ostra- 
cism ?     What  power  did  it  give  the  democratic  party  ? 

§  62.     The  Grecian  Colonies. 

[268]  Where  were  colonies  established  during  this  period  ?  For 
c  what  purposes  ?  What  constitution  did  these  settlements  adopt  1 
D  Did  they  degenerate  or  not  ?  How  far  did  they  depend  on  the 
mother  country  ? 

[270 1     Name  the  Dorian  colonies  in  Lower  Italy. 

[271]     What  Achaean  colonies  were  in  Lower  Italy?     What  hap- 


360  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [272 — 281. 

A.     pened  to  Sybaris  1      *  Who  founded    Metapontum  and  Posei- 

donia  ? 

[272]     What  name  had  the  peninsula  between  the  "Thermaic  and 

Strymonic  gulfs  ?     Mention  the  Chalcidian  settlements  on  the 

B     Thracian    coast.     Which  was   the   most    ancient    of    all    the 

Grecian  settlements  in  the  west  ?  in  Lower  Italy  1  and  in  Sicily  1 

How  was  Zancle  afterwards  named  ? 

[273]     Name    the  Dorian  colonies  in  Sicily  ?     What  other  settle- 
c     ments  had  they  on  the  coast  of  the  Ionian  sea  ?     Had  they  any 
D     on  the  Thracian  coast  and  Bosporus  ?     *  Did  Syracuse  undergo 
any  (and  if  so,  many  or  few)  changes  of  constitution  ?     *  How 
long  did  the  Aristocratic  constitution  last  ?     *  In  whose  hands 
was  the  supreme  authority  lodged  during  this  period  I     *  Name 
A     the  three  Tyrants  of  Syracuse.     *  Why  was  the  last  deposed  1 
*  When  was  Hiero  II.  chosen  king  ?  and  why  ?     *  Who  suc- 
ceeded him  'I  *  What  alliance  occasioned  the  capture  of  Syracuse  1 
[274]     Name  the  colonies  of  Miletus  on  the  Hellespont — on  the  Pro- 

B  pontis — and  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus. 
[275]  What  colonies  had  the  Phocaeans  1 
[276]  Mention  the  colony  of  Zacynthus. 

§  63.     The  Persian  Wars. 

[277]     What  caused  the  Persian  wars? 

[278]     Who  was  at    the  head  of  the  frst   campaign  against  the 
Greeks  1     Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  second  ?     When  was  the 

A  battle  of  Marathon  fought  1  After  that  battle  what  design  did 
Miltiades  form?  How  far  did  this  project  succeed?  What 
followed  his  failure  at  Paros  ?  Who  ruled  Athens  after  the 

B  decease  of  Miltiades?  How  did  Themistocles  obtain  the  ostra- 
cism of  his  rival  ?  What  decree  did  he  prevail  on  the  people  to 

c     pass  ?     What  was  the  real  intention  of  this  measure  ? 
[279]     What  was  the  date  of  the  third  campaign  of  the  Persians  ? 

D  Who  sided  with  them  ?  Who  opposed  them  ?  Who  defended 
the  pass  of  Thermopyla  ?  Who  betrayed  Leonidas  ?  What 

A     did  he  then  do  ?     Did  the  Persian  army  advance  ?     State  the 
names  and  events  of  the  three  naval  engagements  which  were 
fought. 
[280]     How  was  Xerxes  induced  to   hasten  his  return  into  Asia? 

B  What  army  did  he  leave  behind  him  ?  When  did  Mardonius 
invade  Attica  ?  Where  did  the  Athenians  flee  for  refuge  ? 

c  Where  was  Mardonius  utterly  defeated?  By  what  forces? 
What  became  of  the  Medizing  Thebans?  What  other  victory 
was  gained  on  the  same  day?  Which  was  the  first  aggressive 

A    movement  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks  ?     How  was  the  vigor  of 
Themistocles's  administration  shown  ?     What  popular  enactment 
did  Arietldes  obtain  ? 
[281]     With  what  view  did  the  allied  fleet  commence  operation? 

B     Why  was  Pausanias  superseded  in  the  command  ?     How  did 

c  the  Spartans  take  this  ?  *  In  what  did  the  Hegemony  of 
Sparta  over  the  other  Peloponnesian  states  consist?  What 
were  the  duties  of  the  allied  powers  under  the  protection  of 
Athens? 


282 — 290.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  361 

^282]  What  fierce  antagonism  commences  about  this  period  ? 
A  Who  procured  the  banishment  of  Thcmistocles  ?  by  what 
B  means  ?  To  what  city  or  country  did  Themistocles  retire  in  the 

first   instance?      Whose   protection   did    he    afterwards   seek? 

WJiat  was  his  reception?     What  was  the  fate  of  Pausanias? 

How  did  Aristides  end  his  days  ?  What  leaders  now  rose  into 
c  importance?  What  policy  was  pursued  ?  Who  was  appointed 

commander-in-chief  of  the  army  ?     What  success  attended  his 

arms  ?     How  was  the  booty  expended  ? 

§  64.     The  Third  Mcsscnian  War. 

[283]     What   checked   the    Spartan    invasion  of    A  tica  ?       Who 
D     attempted   at  this  time    to    throw  off  the  Spartan  oppression  ? 
A     Who  opposed  them?     To  what  place  did  they  retreat  ?     Who 
B     afforded  aid  to  the  Spartans  ?     What  led  to  Cimon's  banish- 
ment by  ostracism  ?     Where  were  the  Messenians  allowed  to 
retire  to  ? 

§  65.     The  Age  of  Pericles. 

[284j     When  did  the  democratic  supremacy  commence  at  Athens  ? 

c  Who  was  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  Athenian  popular  leaders  ? 
Who  was  he  ?  How  was  he  enabled  to  carry  on  his  various  in- 

D     novations  ?     State  the  use  (or  abuse)  that  the  Athenians  now 

A  made  of  the  contingents  of  the  allies.  What  increase  was  made 
to  their  allies  ?  What  further  burdens  were  imposed  on  them  ? 

B     How  did  Pericles  employ  the  resources  at  his  disposal  ?     Who 
introduced  the  practice  of  paying  the  army '?     What  institution 
was  now  the  sole  remaining  representative  of  aristocratic  inte- 
rests ?     How  did  Pericles  abridge  the  rights  of  this  institution  ? 
[286]     How  did  the  participation  of  the  Athenians  in  the  insurrec- 

c.     tion  of  the  Egyptians  and  of  the  satrap  Inarus  end  ? 
[237]     What  was  the  real  intention  of  the  Spartans  in  sending  an 

D     army  into  central  Greece  ?     Who  were  victorious  at  Tanagra  ? 

A  and  what  neutralized  the  advantages  there  gained  ?  Who  now 
joined  the  Athenian  confederacy  ?  Why  did  Pericles  consent,  to 
the  recall  of  Cimon?  What  was  obtained  through  Cimon's  in- 
tervention ? 

[288]     At  whose  instance  was  a  fresh  campaign  against  the  Per- 
sians undertaken  ?     Describe  the  fortunes  of  the  commander  and 
his  fleet. 
[289]     When  was  the  battle  at  Coronea   fought?     by  whom,  and 

B  with  what  result  ?  Why  did  the  Peloponnesians  invade  Attica 
on  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice  ?  For  how  long  a  period  did 

c  the  Athenian  commander  conclude  a  truce  ?  What  were  the 
conditions  of  this  treaty?  What  arrangement  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  fresh  disputes  ? 

§  66.     The  Peloponnesian  War. 

290]     Give  the  date  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.     What  were  the 
D     causes  that  led  to  it  ?     What  were  the  most  prominent  signs  of 
A     the  jealousy  between  Athens  and  Sparta  ?     How  was  this  feel- 
ing aggravated  ? 


362  QUESTIONS    TO   MANUAL  [291  -  298. 

[291]     How  did  the  war  between  Corcyra  and  Corinth  originate? 
c     How  did  it  terminate  ?     What  occasioned  the  revolt  of  Potidaa 

from  Athens  ?     Who  supported  the  Potidaeans  ?     Who  were  the 

instigators  of  the  war  against  Athens? 
[292]     *  What  states  were  the  allies  of  Athena  ?   *  What  of  Sparta  ? 


I.   Ten  Years'  War  [b  IOCKT^  wdAc^oj]  to  the  Fifty 
Years'  Truce  of  Nicias. 

[293]  How  did  the  Peloponnesians  commence  the  war?  What 
A  retaliation  was  made  by  the  Athenians?  What  prevented 

either  party  from    obtaining  any    decided   advantage  1     What 

calamity   overtook   the  Athenians?       Who    was    tarried   off? 

What  change  now  took  place  in  the  government  ?     When  was 
B     Potidrea  reduced  ?     Why  were  the  Lesbians  compelled  to  sur- 

render at  discretion  ?     What  was  the  advice  of  Cleon  ?     How 

was  it  executed  ? 

[295]  What  success  had  the  Athenians  in  424  ?  What  ill  fortune 
D  followed  ?  Who  was  dispatched  for  the  purpose  of  reconquer- 
A  ing  the  lost  cities?  Who  fell  in  the  engagement  at  Amphi- 

polis?     What  peace  was  then  made  ?     On  what  terms? 

II.    from  the  Renewal  of  the  War  to  the  Issue  of  the 
Expedition  against  Sicily. 

[296]  *  What  states  were  dissatisfied  with  the  peace  of  Nicias? 
*  How  was  their  opposition  manifested?  *  Who  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  renounce  their  alliance  with  Sparta  ?  *  How  was 
the  peace  respected  ?  *  Was  Sparta  able  or  not  to  prevent  a 
renewal  of  the  treaty  between  Argos  and  Athens? 
[297]  What  gave  rise  to  the  expedition  against  Sicily  ?  Of  the 

B  Athenian  statesmen,  who  advised  and  who  opposed  the  expedition  ? 
What  generals  commanded  the  expedition?  Which  of  the 
Athenian  generals  was  recalled?  What  charge  was  preferred 

c  against  him?  To  what  city  did  he  escape?  What  Sicilian 
general  prevented  Nicias  from  taking  Syracuse  ?  Who  com- 
manded the  reinforcements  sent  to  Nicias  ?  By  whose  advice 
did  a  Spartan  fleet  sail  to  assist  the  Syracusans?  Who  com- 
manded the  Spartan  fleet?  Who  now  opposed  the  Athenians? 

A  What  success  was  obtained  against  the  Athenian  fleet  ?  De- 
scribe the  failure  of  the  last  attempt  of  the  Athenians,  and  the 
fate  of  their  army  and  its  commanders. 

III.   The  Decelean  War. 

[398]     How  was  the  war  continued  by  the  Spartans?     Who  joined 

c     them  ?     What  grievance  occasioned  the  revolt  of  many  of  the 

Athenian  allies  in  Asia  Minor?     From  whom  did  Sparta  re- 

ceive subsidies  for  the  war?     What  change  took  place  in  the 

D    government  of  Athens  ?     How  was  the  authority  of  the  people 

limited  ?     What  support  did  the  democratical  part  of  the  con- 

stitution now  obtain  ?     Who  was  now  recalled  I     On  whose 

advice  ?     Who  persuaded  Tissaphernes  to  renounce  the  lejjgue 

A    with   Sparta  ?     How   long   did   the   oligarchical   faction  last  I 


299 — 306.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  363 

What  hastened  their  overthrow  1     Who  now  regained  the  su- 
preme authority  1 

[299]     Describe  the  successes  of  Alcibiades  against  the  LacedsEmo- 

B     nians.     Describe  his  return  to  Athens.     Why  was  he  deprived 

c     of  his  unlimited  command  ?     Who  were  appointed  to  succeed 

him  ?     Who  succeeded  Lysander  ?     Where  was  he  defeated  1 

*  On  what  charge  were  the  Athenian  generals  condemned  to 

death  ?     *  How  many  were  executed  1 

»300J     Describe  the  successes  of  Lysander.      Where  was  the  naval 
D     power  of  Athens  annihilated  ?      How    many   ships   escaped  ? 
A     What  was  the  perilous  position  of  Athens  at  this  \ime  1  On  what 
humiliating  terms  did  Athens  surrender  ?     When  did  the  demo- 
cratic principle  perish ? 

§  67.     The  Hegemony  of  Sparta. 

[101]  Why  did  the  Hegemony  of  Sparta  prove  odious  and  oppres- 
B  s>ve?  Why  did  Thebes  and  Corinth  take  a  part  in  the  war? 

What  did  they  never  intend?     How  far  did  they  change  their 

political  creed  ? 

[302]  Give  the  date  and  duration  of  the  supremacy  of  the  thirty. 
A  What  change  did  Lysander  introduce  into  the  government  1 

Describe  the  conduct  of  the  Thirty.     Which  of  their  number 

was  put  to  death  by  his  colleagues?  On  what  grounds? 
B  Describe  the  death  of  Alcibiades.  Narrate  the  proceedings  of 

Thrasybulus.  What  success  attended  him?  How  were  the 
c  places  of  the  Thirty  supplied  ? "  What  were  the  changes  made 

by  Pausanias  in  co-operation  with  Thrasybulus  ? 
J303]     What  were  the  causes  of  the  war  of  the  Spartans  with  the 

D     Persians  ? 

[304]  How  did  Tithraustes  divert  the  war  from  Persia  ?  Did  the 
A  Athenians  join  the  confederacy  ?  What  was  the  pretext  for  the 
B  war?  Where  did  Lysander  fall  ?  Why  was  Agesilaus  recalled 
c  from  Asia  ?  Where  did  Conon  defeat  the  Lacedaemonians  ? 

What   followed   his  victory  ?       Where  did  Agesilaus  obtain  a 

victory  ?  What  did  Conon  and  Pharnabazus  next  effect  ? 
D  What  proposals  did  the  Spartans  make  in  order  to  withdraw 

the  Persians  from  their  alliance  with  Athens  ?     When  was  the 

peace  of  Antalcidas  concluded  ?     What  did  Sparta  gain  by  it  ? 
A     *  What  islands  did  the  Athenians  continue  to  hold  ? 
[305]     *  Give  a  general  account  of  the  Olynthian  war. 

§  68.     The  War  between  Thebes  and  Sparta. 

.306]  Who  were  now  at  the  head  of  Theban  affairs  ?  Of  what 
B  dishonorable  action  was  Phcebidas  guilty  ?  What  was  the  fate 

of  Ismenias  ?  Where  did  the  other  democrats  betake  them- 
c  selves  to  ?  Describe  the  course  of  Pelopidas  and  his  companions. 
D  How  was  the  Spartan  garrison  treated  ?  What  fresh  attempts 
A  were  made  by  Sparta?  With  what  success  ?  What  victories 

were  gained  by  the  Athenians  ?      Under  what  commanders  ? 

What  was  now  the  policy  of  Athens  ?  What  impediment  was 
B  presented  ?  Who  now  rose  into  importance  ?  What  victory 

did  this  leader  obtain  over  Sparta  ?     Who  was  killed  ?     What 


364  QUESTIONS   TO    MANUAL  [307 — 315. 

c  ambitious  design  was  formed  by  Thebes  ?  How  was  this  pro- 
moted ?  Who  joined  the  Thebans  ?  Why  were  they  compelled 
to  abandon  their  attempt  on  Sparta  itself?  What  plan  did 
Thebes  form  in  order  to  restrain  the  Spartans  from  any  further 
encroachments  on  Peloponnesus  ?  Why  was  the  Theban  army 

D     compelled  to  retire  1      *  What  did  the  second  and  third  inva- 
sions of  Peloponnesus  effect  1 
[307]     Why  did  the  Thebans  attack  the  tyrant  of  Pherae  1     With 

A  what  success  ?  Where  did  Pelopidas  fall  ?  What  dissensions 
induced  Epaminondas  to  undertake  a  fourth  campaign  in  Pelo- 

B  ponnesus  ?  What  was  the  nature  of  these  dissensions  ?  Where 
did  Epaminondas  fall  ?  Give  the  date  of  his  death.  Why  did 
Sparta  refuse  to  accede  to  a  general  peace  1  Why  was  Agesi- 
laus  sent  into  Egypt  ? 

§  69.     The  War  of  the  Confederates  against  Athena. 
[308]     Why  did   the   allies   renounce    their  allegiance  to  Athens? 
c     Why  were  the  Athenians  compelled  to  recognize  the  independ- 
ence of  their  revolted  allies,  and  remit  the  tribute  ? 

§  70.     The  Phocian  or  Sacred  War. 

[309]  What  caused  the  Phocian  or  Sacred  war  ?  What  had  the 
B  Phocians  done  1  Why  did  the  Spartans  join  the  Phocians  ? 
c  What  measures  were  taken  by  the  Spartans  and  Phocians  ? 

Who  united  in  the  cause  of  the  Thebans  ? 

[310]     Who  was  chosen  generalx>f  the  Phocians?     How  did  Philo- 
melus  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  ?      Who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  command  ?     How  was  he  enabled  to  continue 
D     the  war  ?      Which   was  the   principal    theatre   of  hostilities  ? 
why  ]     Why  were  the  Phocians  compelled  to  yield  ?     How  was 
A     Onomarchus  slain  ]     Against  whom  were  hostilities  still  carried 
on  ?     Why  were  the  Thebans  compelled  to  call  in  Philip  II.  of 
B     Macedonia  ?     What  was  the  termination  of  the  war  ?     What 
was  the  decree  of  the  Amphictyonic  council  ? 

§  71.     The  War  against  Philip  II.  of  Macedonia. 
[311]     With  what  view  had  Philip  captured  Amphipolis  and  Pydna? 

c     Why  did  he  give  up  Potidaea  to  the  Olynthians  ? 
[312]     What  was  Philip's  first  pretext  for  interfering  in  the  affairs 
D     of  Greece  1     Did  Philip  comply  with  the  request  of  the  tyrants 
of  Pherae  ?      Why  did  he  permit  the  tyrants  to  remain  ?     Who 
came  to  their  aid  ?     How  did  Philip  then  act  ? 
[313]     What  was  the  policy  of  Philip  with  regard  to  the  Grecian 
B     states  generally  ?     To  what  did  Philip  now  direct  his  chief  atten- 
tion ?     What  city  offered  the  most  obstinate  resistance  ?     Who 
sent  them  assistance?     How  did  Philip  favor,  the  Messcnians  1 
c     Who  was  his  bribed  orator  ?     What  cities  did  he  blockade  on 
recommencing  his  plans  of  conquest  ?     How  was  the  capture  of 
these  cities  prevented  ? 
[314]     How  did  Philip  get  a  fresh  excuse  for  marching  an  army  into 

A     Greece  ?     Did  any  thing  he  did  indicate  ulterior  objects  ? 
[315]     Who  had  the  courage  to  oppose  Philip  ?     How  did  this  great 
B    man  show  his  activity  ?     Where  was  the  allied  army  defeated  ? 


316 — 323.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  365 

In  what  year  ?     How  wns  the  fortune  of  the  day  decided  ]    Did 
Thebes  surrender  ?     What  appointment  did  Philip  receive  ? 

§  72.     Religion,  Literature,  tyc.  of  the  Greeks. 

[316]     *  How    was   the    notion    formed    that    Greek    civilization 

c     was  derived  from  Egypt  1     *  Do  we  find  any  traces  in  proof 

of  this  ? 
[317]     Give  some  account  of  the   religion  of  the  Greeks.     What 

A     traces  do  we  find  of  a  belief  in  one  supreme  being  ?     Where 

B     was  the  residence  of  Zeus  and  the  other  deities?     How  were 
the  national   divinities  amalgamated   at  a   very  early  period? 
Name  the  twelve  principal  deities. 
[318]     *  Give  some  account  of  Zeus.     *  What  was  Juno  named  by 

c     the  Dorians  and  lonians  ?     *  Who  was  Persephone  ?     *  What 

D  is  her  history  ?  *  Who  were  the  deities  of  light  ?  *  Give  an 
account  of  Athene.  *.  Whose  children  were  Apollo  and  Arte- 

A     mis  ?    *  Where  were  they  born  ?    *  How  is  Apollo  also  named  ? 

B  *  Mention  his  attributes  and  epithets.  *  What  does  Poseidon 
denote  ?  *  What  gave  occasion  to  the  fable  of  Vulcan's  being 
the  cup-bearer  of  the  gods  ?  *  Why  was  he  represented  as  a 

c    blacksmith  ?     *  Give  an  account  of  Mercury :  of  Vesta.     *  Who 
was  Mars  ?     *  Who  was  Venus  ?      *  Describe  the  manner  in 
which  Bacchus  was  represented.     What  were  his  epithets  ? 
[319]     What  inferior  classes  of  deities  were  there  ?     Who  were  the 

A  Dasmones?  What  is  meant  by  heroes  ?  What  notion,  produced 
the  deities  of  the  lower  world?  Name  these.  How  were 

B  the  gods  approached  ?  What  were  their  offerings  ?  In  what 
other  modes  did  the  Greeks  honor  the  gods?  Which  of 
all  the  sorts  of  divination  was  held  in  the  greatest  esteem? 
Which  were  the  most  renowned  oracles  ?  Name  the  other  sorts 
of  divination. 
[320]  What  necessities  were  pressed  on  the  Greeks  when  they 

A  became  engaged  in  wars  with  Persia  ?  At  Athens  who  re- 
stored the  constitution  of  Solon  ?  Where  was  democracy  intro- 
duced 1  Where  did  oligarchy  prevail  ?  When  were  these  two 

B  forms  of  government  placed  in  a  state  of  antagonism  ?  When 
was  the  oligarchical  system  £t  its  greatest  height?  What  was 

c     the  signal    for   a    general    rising   agamst  Sparta?      How  was 

Greece  prepared  to  receive  the  yoke  of  a  foreign  master  ? 
[321]     Where  did  epic,  lyric,  and   dramatic   poetry  first  develope 

themselves? 
r322]     What  was  the  character  of  epic  poetry  before  the  days  of 

D  Homer?  How  did  Homer  improve  the  plan  of  the  epic?  How 
were  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  made  known  to  the  world? 

A     Who    composed    the    Homeric    hymns?       Had    Homer    any 

B     imitators?     Where  was  the  school  of  the  Homeridae  ?     Who 
was  at  the  head  of  the  rival  school  ?     What  peoms  of  his  are 
extant  ? 
[323]     When  did  lyric   poetry  develope   itself?     To  whom  is  the 

D  elegiac  measure  ascribed  ?  Who  was  the  last  of  the  great 
elegiac  poets  ?  How  was  the  elegiac  metre  most  commonly 
employed?  How  did  Simonides  distinguish  himself  in  this 


366  QUESTIONS   TO    MANUAL  [324 — 328. 

A  way  ?  Who  invented  the  Iambic  ?  How  did  it  differ  from  the 
epic  and  elegiac  ?  How  was  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Greeks 

B     divided  ?     Distinguish  the  two.     How  did  the   subject   matter 

c     vary  ?     Who  were  the  most  distinguished  poets  of  the  JEolic 
school?      Name    them.      Under   whom  did    the  Doric    choral 
poetry  develope  itself,  and  attain  perfection  1     What  composi- 
tions of  Pindar's  are  extant?     What  is  their  character  ? 
[324]     When  did  the  choral  hymns  first  assume  the  form  of  tra- 

A  gedy  ?  Who  introduced  a  second  actor  on  the  stage  ?  How  did 
/Eschylus  excite  the  astonishment  and  delight  of  the  Greeks? 
Who  introduced  a  third  actor  ?  What  was  the  chief  object  in 
this  addition  ?  What  number  of  tragedies  were  ^Eschylus  and 

B     Sophocles  accustomed  to  bring  forward  at  one  representation  ? 

c     Where  was  Euripides  born  ?     What  innovations  did  he  intro- 
duce ?     How  did  Euripides  differ  from  ^Sschylus  and  Sophocles 
in  the  treatment  of  his  heroes? 
[325]     How  did  this  form  of  composition  arise,  and  what  was  its 

A  character  ?  What  specimen  have  we  left  of  the  Satyric  drama  ? 
Whence  did  the  Old  Comedy  derive  its  origin  I  Who  moulded 
it  into  a  more  artistical  form  ?  When  did  Aristophanes  flourish  ? 
How  many  of  his  comedies  remain  ?  What  representation  have 

B     we  in  them  of  Athenian  manners]      When  was  all   satirical 

notice  of  living  characters  strictly  prohibited  ?     What  was  the 

result  of  this  injunction  ?     What  was  the  object  of  the  Middle 

Comedy  ? 

[326]     How  can  we  account  for  the  Greeks  being  so  many  centuries 

c  without  accurate  historical  records  ?  Who  first  broke  the  ground  ? 
With  what  did  the  compilers  of  history  antecedent  to  Hero- 

D     dotus  content   themselves  I      Describe  the   character  of  Hero- 

.  A     dotus  as  an  historian.     Describe  the  great   historical  work  of 

Thucydides.     What  unfounded  charge  has  been  made  against 

Xenophon  ? 

[327]     Where  alone  was  eloquence  cultivated  as  a  political  science  ? 

B     Characterize  the   orations  of  Pericles.      Who  originally  culti- 

c  vated  rhetoric  as  an  art  ?  What  combination  produced  the 
elaborate  eloquence  of  the  senate  and  the  bar  ?  How  was  the 

D     eloquence  of  Lysias  distinguished  ?  l    Who  was  a  famous  teacher 
of  oratory  ?     What  orator  was  the  great  opponent  of  Demo- 
sthenes?     Did    Demosthenes   exert   all    the   resources  of   his 
eloquence  ? 
[328]     Where  was  philosophy  first  cultivated?     Who  was  at  the 

A  head  of  the  Ionic  school  ?  Upon  what  does  the  reputation  of 
the  'seven  wise  men'  seem  to  have  been  founded?  What  was 

B  principally  taught  by  the  Sophists?  Who  resisted  their  abuse  of 
this  art?  How  did  he  attempt  to  stem  the  torrent  of  irmno- 

c  rality  ?  Who  held  him  up  to  ridicule  ?  Why  was  he  sentenced 
to  death  ?  Who  has  preserved  his  doctrines  ?  What  school  did 

1  [What  is  said  in  the  text  gives  a  false  notion  of  this  orator. 
The  Epitajihios  is  probably  not  a  genuine  work  of  his.  His  pleadings 
are  mostly  on  private  causes,  and  are  exceedingly  clear,  correct,  and 
nervous,  though  plain  J 


329 — 343.]  OF    ANCIENT    HISTORY.  367 

D  Plato  found  ?  Who  founded  the  Peripatetic  school  ?  *  Where 
are  the  earliest  traces  of  mathematical  science  found  ?  *  Who 
made  an  attempt  to  introduce  medicine  into  ordinary  life  1 
*  Who  was  the  real  founder  of  the  healing  art  ?  « 

[329]     Describe    the  Cyclopian   style    of  architecture.     What   re- 
mains have  we  of  this  style  ?     Who  has  described  the  palaces 

B  of  the  heroic  age  1  What  are  the  most  important  architectural 
monuments  of  antiquity  ?  How  were  the  fronts  of  Grecian 

c     temples  ornamented  ?    Where  are  the  most  ancient  of  the  archi- 
tectural monuments  still  in  existence  found  ?     Where  may  those 
of  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Grecian  architecture  be  seen  1 
[330]     What  ornamental  works  in  sculpture  were  produced?    When 

D     was  the  period  of  their  greatest  perfection  ?     What  ornaments 

A     decorated    the    temples?     Who    was    the    most    distinguished 
master  in  sculpture  ?     What  were  his  chief  works  ?     Name  the 
other  celebrated  masters. 
[331]     To  what  was  painting  for  a  long  time  confined  ?    How  long 

B     was   it  considered   subordinate  to  sculpture?     Who  were  the 
principal  painters  of  note  ?     Who  attained  the  highest  degree 
of  perfection  ?     Of  what  did  his  works  consist  ? 
[332]     What  trade  did  the  Phoenicians  carry  on  with  the  Greeks  ? 

c     Who  were  notorious  for  their  acts  of  piracy  1     Which  were  the 

chief  commercial  states  of  Greece  ? 
[333]     *  Name  the  principal  branches  of  Greek  commerce.     *  What 

A     were  the  principal  articles  of  import  ?  of  export  ? 

§  74.     History  of  Macedonia  to  the  Reign  of  Philip  II. 
[340]     What   traditions  exist    respecting,  the  establishment  of  the 
c     Macedonian  monarchy  ?     When  do  the  first  continuous  notices 
D     of  Macedonian  history  commence  ?     How  did  the  Macedonian 
A     Alexander  serve  Xerxes  I     Why  did  Perdiccas  II.  break  with 
B     the  Athenians  ?     Whom  did  he  support  ?     Enumerate  the  im- 
provements Archelaus  introduced  into  his  country.     What  was 
its  condition  after  his  death  ? 

[341]     *  What  was   the  nature  of  the  constitution  of  Macedonia 
c     during  this  period  ] 

§  75.     Philip  II. 

[342]     How  was   the  disputed    succession   in   Macedonia   settled  ? 
A     Who  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Thebes  ?     How  did  he  benefit 
by  his  residence  there  ?     How  did  Philip  obtain  the  throne  1 
B     What  was  this   prince's  grand  object  ?     How  did  he  increase 
the  efficiency  of  his  army  .'     Wherein  did  its  great  power  con- 
sist ?     Why  did  he  endeavor  to  make   himself  master  of  the 
c    coasts  of  Thrace  ?     Who  assassinated  Philip  ?  why  ? 

§  76.     Alexander  the  Great. 

'343]  When  was  Alexander  the  Great  born  ?  What  remarkable 
"  A  event  took  place  on  the  night  of  his  birth  ?  Who  conducted  hia 
education  ?  What  were  the  first  acts  of  his  reign  ?  Who 
opposed  the  Hegemony  of  Alexander  ?  Who  was  chosen 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  destined  .o  act  against  the 
Persiana  ? 

17 


368  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [344 — 356. 

[344]     What  expedition  did  Alexander  now  undertake  ?    What  false 

c     report  was  raised  ?     How  did  Alexander  treat  the  Thebans  ? 

[345]     Who  was  left  as  regent  in  Macedonia  1     What  was  the  state 

D     «f  the  Persian  empire  at  this  time  ?     What  forces  had  Alex- 

A     ander  ?     Which  was  his  first  battle  ?     Who  favored  the  designs 

of  Alexander  ?    Who  offered  resistance  1     Who  was  the  favorite 

B     general  of  Alexander  ?     What  was  assigned  to  him  ?     Why  did 

he  cut  the  famous  knot  at  Gordium  1     How  was  Alexander's 

march  interrupted?     Between  whom  was   the  battle  of  Issus 

c     fought  ?  when  ?  with  what  result  ?     What  fell  into  the  hands  of 

Parmenio  1     On  what  terms  was  Darius  anxious  to  purchase  a 

peace  ? 

[346]     Enumerate  the  conquests  which  followed.     How  was  Tyre 
D     taken  ?     How  long  did  the  siege  of  Gaza  last  1     How  did  Alex- 
ander perpetuate  his  name  in  Egypt  1 

J347]     Describe    his  visit   to  the  temple  of  Zeus  Ammon.     What 
A     advantage    attended   his  conquest  of  Phoenicia    and    Cyprus'? 
B     Where  did  he  again  overthrow  Darius?     Where  did   the  de- 
feated monarch  fly  to  for  refuge  ?     What  provinces  did  Alex- 
ander take  possession  of  ?     Who  murdered  Darius  ? 
[348.]     How  did  the  death  of  Darius  assist  the  schemes  of  Alex- 
c    ander  1     How  was  the  rapid  subjugation  of  the  eastern  portion 

of  the  empire  effected  ? 

[349J  What  was  the  fate  of  Bessus?  With  what  view  did  he 
A  undertake  an  expedition  against  the  Scythians,  &c.  ?  Why  did 

he  retrace  his  steps  ? 

[350]     *  Where  did  discontent  manifest  itself?     »  Why  were  the 
B     Macedonians  discontented  ?     *  Name  some  of  the   most  dis- 
tinguished Macedonians  who  refused  Alexander  divine  homage. 
*  What   caused  disturbances   in   Greece  ?     *  Who   supported 
Agis  II.  ? 

[351]  Who  composed  the  Indian  army  of  Alexander?  Why  did 
D  Poms  submit  to  Alexander  ?  How  was  Alexander  induced  to 
A  return  ?  Who  commanded  the  fleet  ?  Describe  its  course. 
B  How  did  Alexander  return  to  Persia  ? 

[352]  Why  did  Alexander  keep  in  sight  of  his  fleet  ?  How  did  he 
c  proceed  after  this  became  impracticable  ?  How  were  the  last 

years  of  his  life  spent  ? 

[353]     *  How    were    the    oppressive    barbarian    satraps    treated  ? 
D     *  In  what  way  did  Alexander  still  further  conciliate  the  barba- 
rians ?     *  How  did  he  alienate  his  own  veteran  soldiers  ? 
[354]     Where   and  when  did  Alexander  die?     What   caused   his 
A    death  ? 

§  77.     Partition  of  the  Pervico-Macedonian  Empire. 
[355]     Who  was  to  be   proclaimed   the    successor  of  Alexander? 
B     Who  was  to  govern  as  regent  ?  in  Asia  ?  in  Europe  ?     Whom 
did  the  army  recognize  as  king?     Who  obtained  the  satrapy 
of  Egypt  ?  of  Phrygia  ?  of  Caria  ?     What  province  fell  to  Anti. 
gonus  ?  to  Eumenes  ?  to  Lysimachus  ? 

[356]     What    were    the   plans    of   Perdiccas  ?      How    were    they 

c     frustrated  ?     Who  succeeded  to  the   regency  ?     When  did  he 

die  ?     Who  next  obtained  the  guardianship  of  the  two  young 


357—366.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  369 

A  kings  ?  What  followed  this  arrangement  1  What  led  to  a  con- 
federacy against  Antigonus  ?  Who  comprised  this  confederacy  ? 

B     Who  was  the  son  of  Antigonus  ?     When  and  where  was  An- 
tigonus defeated  ?     Who  shared  his  dominions  1 
[357]     *  What   was    the    policy    of  Antigonus?      *  How    did   he 

c    attempt   to  weaken  Cassander   of  Macedonia  1     *  What  pre- 
vented his  crossing  into  Europe  1     *  What  did  he  do  in  order  to 
reconquer  the  east  1 
[358]     *  How  did  the  war  break  out  afresh  ?     *  Who  was  now  com- 

A  missioned  to  effect  the  liberation  of  Greece  ?  *  How  was  h« 
rewarded  for  this  service  ?  *  What  victory  did  Demetrius  now 
obtain?  *  What  titles  did  he  and  his  father  now  assume? 
*  Who  imitated  them?  *  Why  did  Demetrius  attack  Rhodes? 

B  *  What  were  his  exertions?  *  Were  they  successful  ?  *  Who 
solicited  the  aid  of  Demetrius?  *  What  alliance  was  then 
formed  ?  *  How  were  the  territories  of  Antigonus  divided  I 

§  78.    Macedonia  and  Greece. 

[359]     How  did  the  Greeks  receive  the  intelligence  of  Alexander's 

A     death?     Who  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied 

army  ?     To  what  country  did  he  transfer  the  theatre  of  war  ? 

B     What  success  attended  the  allied  army?     On  what  condition 

was  peace  granted  to  Athens  ?    What  was  the  fate  of  Hyperides 

and  Demosthenes? 

[360]     How  did  the  kings  of  the  new  Macedonian  empire  content 
B     themselves  ?     How  were  their  plans  continually  rendered  abor- 
tive ?     What  was  another  obstacle  to  the  complete  subjugation 
of  Greece?     What  Greek  province  alone  remained  to  Mace- 
donia ?     What  relation  did  the  other  states  bear  to  Macedonia  ? 
When  were  Macedonia  and  Greece  invaded  by  the  Gauls  ? 
rhat  hordes   of  barbarians   made  an  irruption   into  Greece? 
Whom  did  the  first  horde  overthrow  ?     Who  drove  them  sub- 
sequently out   of   the  country  ?     Under  whom  did  the  second 
B     horde  march  to  Delphi?     Describe  their  repulse.     Where  did 

they  settle  ? 

[362]     What  had  the  ^Etolian   and  Achaean  confederacy  for  their 
c     object  ?    Where  was  the  JEtolian  confederacy  held  ?    Who  gave 
D     importance  to  the  Achaean  confederacy  ?     How  were  the  Athe- 
nians persuaded  to  join  it  ? 

[363]     What  struggle  took  place  between  the  two  confederacies  ? 
[364]     *  In  the  Cleomenumwar,  who  formed  an  alliance  with  Sparta  ? 
A     *  With  what  intent  ?     *  Who  prevented  the  Achaeans  from  sub- 
B     mitting  to  Sparta  ?    How  ?    *  How  was  Cleomenes  vanquished  ? 
*  How  did  the  war  of  the  confederates  arise  ?     *  What  was  the 
success  of  Philip  III.  ?     *  What  made  him  think  of  attacking 
Rome  ? 

[365]  What  was  the  object  of  New  Comedy?  Who  was  the 
c  most  successful  writer  of  this  description  of  comedy  ?  For 
D  whom  did  he  furnish  a  model  ?  Where  was  eloquence  chiefly 

cultivated  ?     Name  the  five  philosophic  schools. 
*366]     *  Who  founded  the  Peripatetic  1     *  What  was  the  teaching 
'  A     of  the  Epicurean  school  ?     *  Who  founded  the  Stoic  ?     *  What 


[361] 
A     Wl 


370  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [367 — 376. 

was  the  character  of  its  teaching  1     *  Who  founded  the  Skeptic  ? 

*  What  was  its  teaching  ?     *  Who  founded  the  New  Academy  ? 

*  To  what  school  was  it  opposed  ? 

[367]     Name  the  principal  commercial  places  after  the  decline  of 
Grecian  freedom. 

§  79.     Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies. 

[368]     Who    received    the    smallest   division   of  the    Macedonian 
B     monarchy?     What    advantages  attended  the  allotment  of  the 
c     Ptolemies  ]     Give  the  surnames   of  the    three    first  Ptolemies. 
What  was  their  policy  with  respect  to  Egypt,  and  particularly 
A     Alexandria  1     What  proof  have  we  of  their  injudicious  foreign 
policy1?      What  was  the  consequence  of  their  obstinate  perse- 
verance ?  , 

[369]     *  How    did   Ptolemy    Philadelphus  facilitate  the   commerce 
B     between  India  and  the  Mediterranean  ?     *  Why  was  this  mode 
of  communication  but  little  used  1     *  Which  was  the  great  em- 
porium for  the  Indian  and  Arabian  trade  ? 

[370]     When  does  the  decline  of  the  Egyptian  empire  date  its  com- 
c     mencement?     What  was    the    character    of  succeeding    sove- 
reigns ?     How  did  the  people  submit  to  their  oppression  ?     How 
D     did  the  Romans  find  an  opportunity  for  intervention?     What 
A    wars  followed  with  the  Romans  1     When  did  Egypt  begin  to 
take  the  place  of  Athens  as  the  seat  of  learning  ?     What  differ- 
ence was  there  in  the  character  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Grecian 
literature  ? 

[372]     Where  do   the  Alexandrian   poets  fail?     Who   excelled  in 
B    lyric  poetry  1  in  epic  and  didactic  poetry  ?     Have  we  any  frag- 
ments of  Theocritus  ? 

[373]     Who  raised  philology  to  the  position  of  a  substantive  science? 
What  was  the  plan  of  these  literati?     Who  were    the   most 
celebrated  grammarians  ? 
[374]     *  What   great   mathematicians   flourished   at    this    period  ? 

*  What  philosophic  sect  sprung  up  here  in  the  second  century  ? 

§  80.     The  Syrian  Empire  under  the  Seleucida. 

[375]  Relate  the  victories  of  Seleucus.  What  was  the  extent  of 
B  his  dominion  ?  What  bad  policy  did  the  Seleucidae  adopt  ? 
c  What  would  have  been  their  better  course?  What  was  the 

result  of  their  system  of  government  ? 

[376]  Who  averted  the  ruin  of  the  declining  empire  for  a  time? 
A  What  was  his  first  attempt  I  Whose  independence  was  Antio- 

chus  compelled  to  recognize?     What  was  his  conviction  with 

regard  to  the  north-western  portion  of  the  Persian  empire  ? 
B  What  war  was  now  successfully  renewed  ?  Who  interrupted 

Ahtiochus  in  his  career  of  victory  ?  How  did  the  Romans  seek 
c  war  with  Syria  ?  For  what  purpose  did  Antiochus  visit  Greece  ? 
A  Who  deceived  him  ?  Who  declared  war  against  him  ?  Under 

these  circumstances  how  did  Antiochus  act  ?     Where  did  the 

Romans  gain  a  second  battle  at  ?  To  what  condition  was 
B  Antiochus  obliged  to  submit  ?  Who  then  renounced  their  alle* 

giance  to  the  Seleucidae  ? 


377 — 388.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  371 

[377]     On   the  death   of  Antiochus  III.,  what  causes   undermined 
D     the  empire  of  the  Seleucidae  ?      How  did  Antiochus  IV.  show 
his  ignorance  of  his  real  position?     Who  compelled  Antiochus 
A     to  disgorge  his  Egyptian  conquest  ?     What  occasioned  the  de- 
fection of  the  Israelites  from  the  Syrian  monarchy  ?     How  was 
this  empire  shaken  to  its  foundation  ?     Who  reduced  it  to  the 
condition  of  a  Roman  province  ?     At  what  date  ? 

§81.     Kingdoms  which  revolted  from  the  Syrian  dominion. 

[378]     Who  supported  the  Romans  in  their  war  against  Antiochus 

B     III.?     What  was  his  reward?     Who  was  the  founder  of  the 

c     celebrated  library  of  Pergamus?      To  whom  did  Attalus  III. 

bequeath  his  kingdom  ?     Who  overthrew  Aristonlcus  1 
[379]     How  did  Nicomedes  treat  the  Gallic  tribes?     Who  migrated 
A     to  Asia  Minor?      How  did  Caesar  favor  Deiotarus?     Who  as- 
sassinated Agathocles  ?     What  was  the  extent  of  the  kingdom 
of  Parthia  afterwards  ?     Who  deposed  Arsaces  XXX.  ?    Of  what 
B    provinces  did  the  emperor  Galerius  deprive  Narses? 
[381]     Wh«  notices  have  we  of  Bactria  ? 

[382]  When  was  Armenia  divided?  What  misfortune  attended 
the  alliance  of  Tigranes  with  his  father-in-law  Mithridates  VI.  ? 
Enumerate  the  successive  changes  in  the  government  of  Arme- 
nia. Who  ruled  the  Lesser  Armenia  ? 

[383]     Who   acquired   Palestine    on   the   death  of  Alexander  the 
B     Great  ?     What  was  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
called  ?     How  long  did  the  Jews  remain  subject  to  the  Seleuci- 
dae ?     What  occasioned  their  revolt  ? 

[384]     How  long  did  they  maintain  their  independence  ?     Who  was 
c     recognized  by  Demetrius  as  high-priest  and  independent  prince 
of  Judaea  ?     What  struggles  prepared  the  way  for  the  depend- 
ence of  their  country  on  Rome?     How  did  the  leader  of  the 
Pharisaic  party  obtain  promotion  to  the  high-priesthood  1 
[385]     *  How  did  the  Pharisees  and   Sadducees  differ  in  doctrine  ? 
A     *  Who  were  the  Essenes?      What  was  the  consequence  of  the 
new   high-priest's  neglect  of  public  affairs  ?      Whose  son  was 
Herod  ?     How  was  he  enabled  to  bid  defiance  to  the  enmity  of 
the  Pharisees? 

[386]     Why  was  the  government  of  Herod  the  Great  hateful  to 
B     every  Jewish  patriot?     What  was  Herod's  policy  ?     When  was 
JESUS  CHRIST  born  ?     Of  what  province  did  Judaja  form  a 
part  ?      Who  was  its  most  notorious  procurator  1      What  hap- 
pened during  his  government  ? 

387]     *  Did  Palestine  again  become  a  kingdom  1     *  Under  whom  ? 

Who  destroyed  Jerusalem  ?      When  ?      How  many  Jews  lost 

their  lives?      Where  was  the  seat  of  government  now  trans- 

A     ferred  ?     What  occasioned  another  general  insurrection  of  the 

Jews  ?     What  new  city  rose  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem  1 

§  82.     The  Kingdom  of  Pontus. 

[388]     When   did    Pontus   become   independent?      To  whom   did 
B     Mithridates  II.  submit  ?     Who  expelled  Antigonus  from  Pon- 
tus ?     Describe  the  career  of  Mithridates  VI.     On  whom  wag 
c     Pontus  conferred  at  a  later  period  1 


372  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [389 — 457. 

§  83.     Bithynia  and  Cappadocia. 

[389]     Who     are     the    best     known    of    the     Bithynian    kings  ? 
D     Who  inveigled   him  to  Rome  1      Who   was   the  last  king  of 
Cappadocia  ?  * 

§  91.    Legend  concerning  the  Immigration  of  the  Trojans 

into  Latium. 

[447]     Who  visited  Latium  previously  to  the  Trojan  immigration  ? 

A     What  did  he  do  1     Where  did  ^Eneas  land  ?     WV>m  did  he 

marry  ?     How  was  the  first  settlement  in  Italy  named  by  the 

B     Trojans  ?     What  city  did  they  found  afterwards  ?     *  What  was 

the  fate  of  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli  1     *  What  becomes  of 

^Eneas  1     *  Who  was  his  son  ? 

[448J     Who  founded  the  city  of  Alba  Longa  1     *  On  what  grounds 
c     would  you  doubt  the  catalogue  of  kings  from  Ascanius  to  Amulius ? 

§  92.    Legend  concerning  the  Building  of  Rome. 

[449]     *  Under  what  two  forms  is  the  legend  concerning  the  build- 
of  Rome  known  1 

§  93.     Romulus. 

[450]     How  long  did  Romulus  reign  1      How  was  the  new  city  of 
c     Rome  soon  peopled  1     How  did  Romulus  act  when  his  matri- 
monial proposals  were  rejected  ?     What  wars  did  this  give  rise 
A    to  1     How  were  they  terminated  1     What  became  of  Romulus  ? 

§  94.    Numa  Pompilius. 

[451]     How  long   did    Numa    Pompilius   reign?      Who   was   he? 
B     Name  the  different  orders  who  formed  his  religious  establish- 
ment.    What  were  his  other  remarkable  acts  ? 

§  95.  Niebuhr's  view  of  the  origin  of  the  earliest  Inhabitants 

of  Rome. 
[452]     Why  have  we  the  term    Quirites    associated  with   that   of 

c     Populus  Rom  anus  ? 

[453]     Of  what  did  the  Roman  people  consist  before  the  formation 
A     of  the  plebs  ?     How  did  this  distinction  originate  ?     What  was 

the  nature  of  the  connection  between  client  and  patron  ? 
[454]     Who  were  styled  gentes  minores  ?     Name  the  three  tribes  of 
c     the  Roman  people.     How  were  these  subdivided  1     Who  pre- 
A    sided  over  a  tribe  ?  curia  ?  gens  1     Who  formed  the  senate  ? 

§  96.     The  earliest  Constitution  of  Rome  under  Sereins 

Tullius. 

[455]     How  was  the  supreme  authority  divided  ?     How  was  the  king 
c     chosen?     What  was  the  nature  of  his  authority  1     How  was  his 

revenue  derived  ? 

[456]     Of  what  numbers  did  the  senate  consist  at  different  periods  ? 
[457]     What^was  the  comitia  curiata  ?     Who  acted  as  interreges  ? 
A    For  how  long  time  did  each  rule  ? 


458 — 469.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  37$ 

§97.     Tullus  Hostilius. 

[458]  How  long  did  Tullus  Hostilius  reign?  How  was  the  wal 
B  with  Alba  Longa  decided  ?  How  was  the  attempted  desertion 
c  of  Mettius  Fuffetius  punished  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Tullus  ? 

§  98.     Ancus  Marcius. 

~459]  How  long  did  Ancus  Marcius  reign  ?  What  were  his  prin- 
D  cipal  public  works  ? 

§  99.     L.  Tarquinius  Priscus. 

[460]     How  long  did  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus  reign  ?     Who  was  he  ? 
A     Mention  his  great  architectural  labors.     What  changes  did  he 
effect  in  the  constitution  ?     What  was  Tarquin's  fate  ? 

§  100.     Servius  Tullius. 

[461]     How  long  did  Servius  Tullius  reign?     What  was  his  origin  ? 
B     How  did  he  come  to  the  throne  1     What  temple  did  he  build  1 
Who  murdered  him  1     Who  supported  Servius  Tullius  1 

§  101.     The  Constitution  of  Servius  Tullius. 

[462]     What  new  order  in  the  state  was  now  become  influential  t 

c     Describe  the  origin  and  progress  of  this  order.     What  was  the 

chief  object  of  the  constitution  of  Servius  Tullius '?     What  was 

A    his  policy  with  regard  to  the  plebs  1     How  did  he  commence  his 

reforms? 

[463]     What  new  division   of  the   inhabitants   did  he   introduce  ? 

c     How  many  equites  or  knights  were  there  ?     How  were  those  who 

served  on  foot  divided  ?    What  amount  of  property  was  to  be 

D     possessed  by  these  classes  respectively  ?     What  class  or  classes 

comprehended  the  third  part  of  the  whole  ?     Name  the  centuries 

of  this  part. 

[464]  How  was  the  voting  conducting  ?  What  connection  existed 
A  between  the  military  and  civil  constitutions  of  the  kingdom  ? 
B  Who  were  the  serarii  ? 

[465]     *  How  was  the  property  qualification  settled  ?     *  How  often 

was  a  census  made  ?     *  What  items  did  it  comprehend  ?     *  To 

whom  was  the  administration  of  the  public  exchequer  intrusted  1 

[466]     Who  formed  the  comitia  centuriata  ?     What  privileges  were 

c     conferred  on  this  assembly  by  Servius  ?     How  was  its  power 

A     limited  in  elections  and  legislation  ?     To  whom  were  the  judicia 

capitis  committed  ? 

[467]     *  What  state  allowances  were  granted  to  the  knights  ?    *  How 

B     were  the  classes  divided  ?     *  Of  how  many  men  did  the  Roman 

legion   consist   originally  ?      *  How   were  the   classes  armed  ? 

*  What  was  the  office  of  the  accensi  and  velati  ?     *  When  were 

the  proletarii  armed  ? 

§  102.     L.  Tarquinius  Superbus. 

[468]     How  long  did  L.  Tarquinius  Superbus  reign  ?     How  came  he 

c     to  ascend  the  throne  ?     What  oppressive  measures  did  he  adopt  1 

[469]      How   was  he   enabled   to   build   the   Capitoline  temple  ol 


374  QUESTIONS    TO    MANUAL  [471 482. 

D    Jupiter,  and  the  temples  of  Juno  and  Minerva  1     How  were  the 
A     Sibylline  books  obtained  I     Who  preserved  them  1 
[471]     What  was  the  dispute  between  the  sons  of  the  king  and  L. 
B     Tarquinius  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Lucretia  ?  and  who  avenged 
c     her  death?     Who  were  the  first  consuls?     *  What  inconsisten- 
cies occur  in  the  chronology  of  this  period  ? 

$  103.     The  Consuls. 

[472J     What  was  the  original  title  of  the  Consuls  ?     How  long  did 

A     they  retain  it  ?     When  did  plebeians  first  become  eligible  to  the 

office  of  consul  ?     What  were  the  necessary  qualifications  for  the 

consulship  ?     *  How  was   the  election   made  and  sanctioned  ? 

*  When  did  the  consuls  enter  on  office  1 

[473]     To  whom  were  the  priestly  duties  committed?     How  was 
B     the  great  power  of  the  consuls  gradually  circumscribed  ?     When 
were  the  consuls  invested  with  unlimited  powers  ?     How  long 
did  the  consulship  nominally  exist  ? 

§   104.     Consequences  of  the  Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins. 

[474]     Who  was  at  the  head  of  a  conspiracy  to  restore  the  Tar- 
c     quins?     Who  succeeded  Collatinus  as  consul?     How  had  the 
number  of  senators  been  diminished  ?     Who  were  now  admitted 
in  their  number  ? 

[475]     *  How  was  the  battle  between  Aruns  and  Brutus  decided  ? 

A     *  What  important  law  did  P.  Valerius  obtain  for  the  plebeians  ? 

[476]      What  heroic  deeds  did  the  war  with   Porsenna  produce? 

B     On  what  terms  were  the  Romans  compelled  to  conclude  a  peace 

with  Porsenna  ? 

'477]     What  power  had  the  Dictator  ?     How  long  did  his  office  last  ? 

c     When  was  the  first  dictator  appointed  ?     What  was  the  advantage 

of  such  an  office  ?     *  From  what  class  was  the  dictator  chosen  ? 

§  105.     Secession  of  the  Plebs,  494. 

[479]     When  did  the  patrician   party  begin  to  press  heavily  on  the 

B     plebeians  ?  With  what  view  was  the  dictatorship  created  ?  How 

c     had  the  plebeians  been  ruined  ?     To  whom  was  the  term  nexus 

applied?     What  became  of  those  who  failed  to  redeem  their 

pledge  within  a  given  time  ? 

[480]     Why  did  the  people  refuse  to  serve   in  the  army?      Who 
D     persuaded  them  to  take  the  field  ?     What  did   the  people  do 
when  they  found  the  promises  of  their  commanders  unfulfilled  ? 
A     Who  brought  about  a  peace  ?     How  were  the  tribunes  chosen  ? 
B     What  was  the  object  of  their  appointment  ?     What  power  did 
they  possess  ?     How  were  questions  decided  in  the  college  ot 
c     tribunes  ?     To  what  comitia  could  they  summon  the   people  ? 
Where  was  this   assembly  held?     Whom  did  the   resolutions 
there  adopted  affect  ?     What  wer«  such  resolutions  called  ? 
[481]     What  duties  were  intrusted  to  the  adiles  plebeii  ? 
[482]     *  Who  attempted  to  obtain  for  the  plebs  a  share  of  the  ager 
publicus  ?     *  Was  his  law  adopted  ?     *  What  charge  did  Genu- 
ciua  make  against  the  consuls  I 


483 — 496.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  375 


§  106.     Wars  to  the  period  of  the  Decemvirate. 

.483]     How  did  Cn.  Marcius  obtain  the  surname    of  Coriolanus? 
"  B     Why  was  he  condemned  by  the  comitia  tributa  1     What  step 

did  he  take  1     What  demands  did  he  make  when  before  the  city 

of  Rome  1     How  was  he  induced  to  raise  the  siege  1     What 

became  of  him  afterwards  1 

[484]     With  what  view  was  the  war  against  Veii  undertaken  ? 
[485]     *  What  success  had  the  Fabii  against  the  Veientines  1 
[486]     How  far   had   the  Ausonian   tribes  (^Equi  and  Volsci)  ex- 
A    tended  their  authority  1     Who  rescued  the  Romans  when  beaten 

on  the  Algidus  1 

§  107.     Struggle  of  the  Plebeians  with  the  Patricians  for 
equality  of  Civil  Rights. 

[485]     Who  proposed  the  formation  of  a  code   of  written   laws  ? 

c     why?     What    advantages  would   the  plebeians   gain  by  these 

laws?     Why  did  the  patricians  attempt  to  render  this  "  rogatio" 

D     ineffective  ?    .  How   did    the    struggle    terminate  ?     *  On   what 

grounds  has  it  been  supposed  that  the  Roman  code  was  derived 

from  that  of  Athens  ? 

[488]     Who  were  appointed  to  frame  the  new  code  of  written  laws  ? 

B     What  was  the  result  of  this  commission  ?     How  long  did  these 

laws  form  the  groundwork  of  Roman  legislation  ?     What  most 

important  change  was   consequent   on   the   formation    of  this 

code? 

[489]     How  did  the  second  decemvirate  act  ?     How  was  the  discon- 
D     tent  of  the  people  blown  into  a  flame  ?     By  whose  means  was 
A     peace  restored  ?     On  what  terms  ?     Who  impeached  the  decem- 
viri ?     What  was  their  fate  ?     What  became  of  their  property  ? 
[490]     What  was  the  first  endeavor  of  the  newly-elected  consuls? 

B     In  order  to  this  what  laws  were  enacted  ? 

[491]     What  essential  change  in  the  constitution  was  effected  by  C. 
c     Canuleius  ?     What  other  changes  were  introduced  by  his  col- 
leagues?    What  was  the    number   of  the    Military  Tribunes? 
What  law  was  passed  yearly  with  regard  to  the  appointment 
of  chief  magistrates? 

[492]     From  what  order  were  the  Censors  chosen  ?     How  long  did 
A     their  office  continue  ?     What  were  their  functions  ? 
[493]     *  How  was  the  generosity  of  Sp.  Malius  rewarded  ?     *  How 
c     was  the  senate  now  recruited  ? 

[494]     How  had  all  questions  hitherto  been  decided  in  the  college 

D     of  Tribunes  ?     What   enactment  was   now  made  ?     Was  this 

serviceable    to    any  order  in   the   state?     What   practice  was 

now  introduced  in  the  army?     What  was   set  aside   for  this 

purpose  ? 

§  108.     The  last  War  against  Veii. 

[495]     What  wars  preceded  the  last  against  Veii  ? 
[496]     What  led   to  the  war  with  Veii?     How  was  Veii   taken? 
B    What  dependence  is  to  be  placed  on  the  account  df  its  c'apture  1 
17* 


376  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAI  [497 — 507. 

[497]     *  What  did  the  oracle  and   aruspex  announce  about  Veil? 

c     *  What  was  done  in  consequence  ? 

[498]     How  was  the  Veientine  territory  disposed  of  1     What  charge 
was  made  against  Camillus?     What  was  his  punishment  1 

$  109.      War  with  the  Gauls,  389. 

[499]     Who  now  crossed  the  Alps  and  entered  Italy  1     Who  com- 

A    manded   the  Italian  division?     What   amount   of  forces  were 

B     engaged  on  the  Allia?     When  was  this  battle  fought?     With 

what  event?     On  what  conditions   did   the    Gauls   consent  to 

withdraw    from    Rome?     Who    interfered    at    this   juncture? 

c     What  followed?     Why  was   Camillus   surnamed   the    second 

founder  of  the  city  ?     Who  re -peopled  Veii? 

[500]     *  How  were    many  persons   reduced   to  insolvency  at  this 
A     tune  ?     *  What  was  the  conduct  of  M.  Manlius  ?     *  How  was 
he  treated  ? 

§  110.     Termination  of  the  struggle  between  the  Patricians 
and  Plebeians  by  the  Licinian  Rogations. 

[501]     Who  attempted  to  relieve  the  continued  embarrassment  of 
c     the  plebeians  ?     What  laws  did  they  propose  ?      Who  stopped 

the  reading  of  these   rogations?     When  were    they  adopted? 
D     To  what  condition  were    they  made  subject?     Why  was  the 

praetura  urbana  established  ?     Who  held  the  curule  aedileship  ? 

Who  was  nominated  the  first  plebeian  consul  ? 

[502]     Who  was  the  Praetor  Urbanus  ?     What  was   his   principal 
B     duty  ?     How  was  his  authority  indicated  ?     What  guide  had  he 

for  his  decisions  in  cases  to  which  the  law  did  not  extend  ?     On 
c     what  did   he  sit?     What  other  praetor   was  now  appointed? 

Why  was  the  appointment  made  necessary  ?     Were  the  number 

of  praetors    further   increased  ?     How  were    they  increased  by 

Sulla  and  Caesar  I 

[503]     What  were  the  duties  of  the  Curule  ^Ediles  ?     How  long  was 
A    it  before  the  plebeians  were   established  in  the   possession  of 

their  newly -acquired  rights?     How  was  the  election  of  Consuls 

frequently  interrupted  ? 

§111.     Their  Wars — to  the  Samnite  Wars. 

[504]     With  what  nation   or  tribe  had   the  Romans  several  ware 
B     about  this  time  ?     How  were  they  decided  ? 

§  112.     First  War  with  the  Samnites. 

[506]     What  was  the  extent  of  the  Samnite  dominion  ?     Was  the 

D    population  of  this  territory  large  ?     Who  applied  to  the  Romans 

for  aid  against  the  Samnites  ?     Who  were  consuls  at  this  time  ? 

A     What  engagements  took  place?     What  booty  fell  into  the  hands 

of  the  Romans  ?     Who  gained  the  victory  at  Sueseula  ?     What 

was  the  condition  of  peace  between  the  Romans  and  Samnites  ? 

§  1 13.     War  with  the  Latins,  339—337. 

[5071     When  was  the  alliance  between  Rome  and  Latium  renewed  ? 
c    What  led  to  the  complete  subjugation  of  the  Latins  ?    Where 


508 518.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  377 

did  the  Romans  meet  the  Latins  in  conflict?      Under  whose 
command?    How  and  why  did  Manlius  punish  his  son?    Where 
was  a  second  victory  gained  ?     What  followed  this  victory  ? 
[508]     *  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  subdued  cities  treated  1 

§  114.     Second  War  with  the  Samnites. 

[509]     *  What  were  the  causes  of  the  second  Samnite  war? 

[510]     How  did    the    Romans  divide  the  forces  of  the  Samnites? 

B     How  many  times  were  the  Samnites  defeated  ?     Under  whom  ? 

Where  was  a  Roman  force  intercepted  and  beaten  ?     On  what 

c     terms  did  they  capitulate  ?     *  How  long  did  the  war  with  the 

Samnites  last  ?     *  In  whose  favor  did  it  terminate  ? 

[511]     With  what  states  did  the  Romans  now  maintain  war  suc- 

A    cessfully?      What   favorable    opportunity    did    the    Etruscans 

seize  to  re-establish  their  ancient  boundaries?      Who  opposed 

them  ?     Where  were  they  defeated  ?     How  was  the  conqueror 

rewarded  ?     Who  obtained  the  victory  near  Longula  ?     What 

B     success  attended  Fabius  as  proconsul?      Over  whom  did  the 

consuls  of  the  ensuing  year  gain  victories  ?     What  other  battles 

were  fought  ?      Did   the    Samnites   afterwards   recognize    the 

supremacy  of  Rome  ?     On  what  terms  was  a  peace  concluded  ? 

[512]     *  How  were  the  revolted  cities  of  the  Hernicans  treated? 

c     how  the  Volscians  and  ^Equians  who  had  afforded  assistance  to 

the  Samnites? 

§  115.     Third  War  with  the  Samnites. 

[513]  What  gave  rise  to  the  third  war  with  the  Samnites  ?  By 
A  what  alliance  did  the  Samnites  seek  to  strengthen  themselves  ? 

Where  were  they  defeated  1     By  whom  1     Who  checked  the 

advance  of  the  Gauls  1  What  victories  did  the  Romans  gain  ? 
B  What  was  the  fate  of  C.  Pontius?  Who  terminated  the  war 

with  the  Samnites?     *  How  far  did  the  sovereignty  of  Rome 

now  extend? 

§  116.     War  with  Tarentum  and  with  Pyrrhus  of  Epirut. 

[514]     What  caused  the  war  with  Tarentum  ? 
[515]     Whom  did  the  people  of  Tarentum  call  to  their  assistance  ? 
A     What  victory  did  this  ally  gain  ?      On  what  terms  did  he  offer 
peace  to  the  Romans  ?      By  whose  advice  was  this  proposal  re- 
jected ? 

[516]  What  battle  was  won  by  Pyrrhus  in  the  following  year? 
c  What  induced  Pyrrhus  to  conclude  an  armistice  with  Rome? 

Why  did  Pyrrhus  quit  Italy  ? 

[517]     When  was  he  compelled  to  abandon  Sicily?     Why  did  he 
D     return  into  Italy  ?      Who  defeated  his  mercenaries  ?    where  ? 
What  did  Pyrrhus  then  do  ?      What  was  his  fate  ?      Who  deli- 
vered up  Tarentum  to  the  Romans  ? 

§  117.    Complete  Subjugation  of  Italy. 

[518]     Who  now  opposed   the  Romans  ?     Who  was  sent  against 
A    them?    With  what  success?    What  became  df  the  Etruscan 
cities? 


378  QUESTIONS    TO   MANUAL  [519 530. 

[519]  What  states  were  now  compelled  to  receive  Roman  colo- 
B  nists  ? 

[520]     Where  were  the  Picentians  sent  ?  why  ? 
[522]     *  What   was  the  connection  of  the  conquered  States  with 

c     Rome  ? 

[523]     *  What  privileges  belonged  to  the  Municipia  ?     *  What  usage 

A     had   the    Romans    for    the    purpose    of  retaining  a  conquered 

people  in  a  state  of  dependence  ?     »  What  lands  were  assigned 

B     to   the   colonists  ?      *  Who    had    the  administration  of  public 

affairs?     *  What  advantage  attended  this  plan  of  colonizing  1 

c     *  By  whose  order  were  colonies  established  ?     *  What  were  the 

prefecture  1 

§  118.    Domestic  History  of  Rome  during  this  period. 

[524]     When  did   the  importance  of  the  patrician  order  begin  to 

decline  ? 

[525]  Who  took  the  first  decided  step  towards  a  complete  equaliza- 
D  tion  of  the  two  orders  ?  What  were  the  three  laws  that  he  pro- 
A  posed  in  order  to  achieve  this?  What  was  gained  by  the  lex 
B  Ogulnia  ?  What  was  the  object  of  the  lex  Mamia  ?  What  led 

to  the  complete  establishment  of  democracy? 

[526]     *  With  what  view  did  Appius  Claudius  admit  the  libertini 
c     into  the  plebs?     *  Who  set  aside  this  arrangement?     *  What 
privilege  did   this  office  confer?      *  Why  were  three  censors 
deemed  necessary  1 

§  119.     The  First  Punic  War. 

[527]     When  did  the  first  Punic  war  break   out?      Why  did  the 
Carthaginians  support  the  Tarentines  in  their  struggles  against 

A  Rome?  What  led  to  the  introduction  of  Roman  troops  into 
Sicily  ?  Where  were  the  Romans  admitted  ?  Who  blockaded 

B     them  ?     Who  relieved  Messana  ?     How  many  cities  submitted 

to  the  Romans  ?      Did  Hiero  make  peace  with  the  invaders  ? 

What  did  the  Romans  now  do  ?     What  was  the  fate  of  Agri- 

gentum  ? 

[528]     With  what  view  did   the    Romans   create    a  naval   force  ? 

c     How  soon  was  a  fleet  equipped  ?     Who  conquered  the  Cartha- 

D  ginians  by  sea  ?  Where  ?  What  honorable  distinction  was 
granted  to  this  commander  ?  What  was  the  next  bold  step  of 

A  the  Romans  ?  Who  commanded  the  Romans  when  the  war  was 
transferred  to  Africa  ?  Where  did  Regulus  defeat  the  Cartha- 
ginians? What  were  the  number  of  ships  on  each  side  ? 

529]     Give  an  account  of  the  campaign   in   Africa.      Who  was 

B  placed  in  command  of  the  Carthaginians  ?  What  contributed 
to  the  defeat  of  the  Romans?  What  became  of  Regulus? 
Where  was  the  naval  force  of  the  Carthaginians  annihilated  ? 

c     Where  was  the  fleet  lost? 
[530]     What  success  attended  a  second  Roman  fleet?      What  de- 

A    termination  did  the  disaster  lead  to?      Whom  did  the  Cartha- 

ginians  send  to  Rome  to  sue  for  peace  ?     How  were  the  eridea- 

*   vore   of  the  Romans  to  obtain   popsession   of   Lilybaeum    and 

B     Drepanum  rendered  abortive  ?      Why  did  the  Romans  deter* 


531 541.]  OF    ANCIENT    HISTORY.  379 

mine  again  to  abandon  naval  warfare  ?     Who  commanded  the 
Carthnginians  in  Sicily  I     What  decisive  victory  was  at  length 
gained  by  the  Romans  ?     On  what   terms  was  a  peace  con- 
c     eluded  ?     In  what  year  did  the  first  Punic  war  end  1 
[531]     What  opportunity  did  the  Romans  take  to  get  possession  of 
Sardinia  and  Corsica  1 

§  120.     War  with  the  Illyrians. 

[532J  On  what  ground  diefr-  the  Romans  declare  war  against  the 
A  lllyrians  ?  On  what  terms  was  a  peace  concluded  ? 

[533]  What  privileges  did  the  Greeks  confer  on  t^e  Romans  in 
B  gratitude  for  their  deliverance  from  Illyrian  piracy  1 

§  121.     Conquest  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 

[534]  What  tribes  of  either  cisalpine  or  transalpine  Gaul  now  rose 
up  against  Rome  ?  What  occasioned  this  rising  ?  How  did  the 
rebellion  terminate  1  What  plans  did  the  Romans  adopt  for  the 
security  of  the  newly-acquired  territory  1 

$  122.     Second  Punic  War. 

[536]  Give  the  pedigree  of  the  Scipios.  With  what  view  did 
B  Hamilcar  commence  the  subjugation  of  Spain  ?  How  was  this 
c  intention  frustrated  ?  Who  besieged  Saguntum  ?  What  was 

the  result  of  this  act  of  aggression  I     What  natural  obstacles  did 

Hannibal    overcome    on   his    march    towards    Italy?      What 

victories  did  he  gain  on  his  way  ?     What  amount  of  forces  had 

he  on  arriving  in  Italy  ? 

[537]  *  How  did  the  Romans  resolve  to  carry  on  this  war? 
D  *  Who  was  dispatched  into  Sicily?  and  with  what  further 

orders  ?     *  Who  marched  into  Spain  ?     *  Why  was  this  plan 

altered  ? 

[538]  What  victories  did  Hannibal  gain,  and  over  whom  ?  What 
A  fatal  error  did  Hannibal  commit  after  the  battle  of  Trasimenus? 
B  Where  did  he  march  ?  With  what  hope  1  What  was  the  plan 

ofFabius?     Whence  his  surname  I     What  was  the  issue  of  the 
c     battle    of    Canns  ?     What    most   important    result   followed  ? 

What  success  attended  the  fresh  army  of  the  Romans  ? 
[539]     What    city    was    Hannibal    now    occupied    in    besieging? 
A     *  Where  did  he  establish  his  head-quarters  ?     *  What  did  he 

do  after  failing  in  his  attempts  to  reduce  the  citadel  of  Taren- 

tum?     *  What  success  had  Marcellus  over  Hannibal  ?     *  What 

was  his  fa«e  ? 

[540]  Why  was  Hannibal  compelled  to  seek  assistance  from  foreign 
B  powers?  How  were  the  Macedonians  and  Syracusans  pre- 
c  vented  from  aiding  him?  In  what  year  did  the  whole  of  Sicily 

become    a    Roman  province  ?     Who  commanded   the  Cartha- 
D     ginian  troops  in  Spain  ?     Where  was  Hasdrubal  defeated  ?     By 

whom  ?     How  long  did  Mago  struggle  against  the   Romans  ? 
A     Who  was  recalled  with  him  ?     What  was  his  end  ? 
[541 J     How  did  Cn.  Scipio  open  the  campaign?     Who  was  sent 
B     into  Spain  to  his  assistance  ?     Who  joined  Hasdrubal  ?     What 

was  the  career  of  the  Scipios  in  Spain  ?     How  did  it  terminate  1 


380  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [542 — 550. 

c     Who  was  now  sent  out  against  the  Carthaginians  ?     Mention  the 

victories  of  this  commander.     How  was  Spain  divided  ?     How 

named?     What  appointment  did  C.  Scipio  receive  on  his  return 

to  Rome  ?     What  permission  was  granted  to  him  ? 

[542]     Who  joined  Scipio  on  his  landing  in  Africa  1     What  plan  of 

B  attack  did  Syphax  and  the  Carthaginians  form  1  How  was  it 
defeated?  Why  did  the  Carthaginian  government  deem  it 
advisable  to  recall  Hannibal  and  Mago  from  Italy?  Where 
were  the  Carthaginians  finally  defeated?  when?  On  what 
terms  were  they  compelled  to  accept  peace  ? 
[543]  *  How  was  Masinissa  rewarded?  *  What  honors  were 

c    conferred  on  Scipio  1     *  How  were  the  revolted  states  of  Italy 
treated  ? 

§  123.     The  Two  Wars  against  Philip  ///.,  king  of 
Macedonia. 

[544]     What  pretext  had  the  Romans  for  commencing  a  struggle  for 
D     preponderance  in  the  east  ? 

[545]     *  Why    did     the     Romans     endeavor    to     defeat    Philip's 
A    ambitious  projects  in   Illyria  ?      *  Not    attaining   this   object, 
whose  friendship  did  they  court  ?     *  How  did  the  war  between 
Philip  and  the  ^Etolians  terminate  ? 

[546]     How  did  Philip  make  aggressions  on  the  Romans  ?     What 
B     opportunity  did    the   Romans   take   of  punishing  him?     Who 
c     prosecuted  the  war  with  vigor?      What  battle  put  an  end  to 
the  war?     Its   date?     To  what   terms  was  Philip   obliged  to 
submit  ?     When  were  the  Greek  districts  proclaimed  free  ? 
[547]     *  How  did  Flaminius  limit  the  power  of  Nabis  ?     *  Why  did 
D    he  allow  it  to  remain  ? 

§  124.     War  with  Antiochus  III.  of  Syria. 

[548]     *  What   occasioned  the   revolt  of   the   ^Etolians  ?     *  Who 

A     subdued  them?     *  What  charges  were  made  against  the  two 

Scipios  ?    *  By  whom  ?    *  To  what  country  or  place  did  Publius 

B     retire  ?    *  How  was  Lucius  punished  ?     *  What  was  the  end  of 

Hannibal  ? 

§  125.     Third  Macedonian  War. 

[549]     How  was  Philip  occupied  when  death  stopped  his  projects  ? 
c     Who  carried  them  forward  ?     How  did  this  prince  strengthen 
himself?    How  was  he  often  defeated  1    How  was  the  breaking 
D    out  of  war  precipitated  ?     What  battle  decided  the  fate  of  the 
A     Macedonian  monarchy  ?     What  became  of  Perseus  ?     How  did 
the  Romans  prepare  the  country  for  submission  to  their  sove- 
reign rule  ?    What  advantage  did  the  Roman  people  derive  from 
these    conquests?     How    did    they    prove    injurious    to    their 
liberties  ? 

[550]     How  was   Illyria   punished  for  its  alliance   with   Perseus? 
B     How  were  the  cities  and  inhabitants  of  Epirus  treated  ?     How 
c    were  the  1000  falsely  accused  Achaeans  treated?     What  waa 
the  policy  of  Rome  with  regard  to  the  Grecian  states? 


551 — 558.]  OF   ANCIENT    HISTORY.  381 

[551]  *  Who  compelled  Antiochus  IV.  [Antiochus  Epiphanes]  to 
abandon  his  warlike  designs  on  Egypt  ?  *  Who  was  detained 
at  Rome  as  a  hostage  ?  *  Why  was  Antiochus  V.  placed  on 
the  throne  ?  *  Did  Demetrius  escape  ?  *  With  what  view  did 
the  Romans  divide  Egypt  ? 

§  126.     The  last  Wars  with  Macedonia  and  Greece. 

[552]  Who  made  an  attempt  to  re-establish  the  Macedonian 
A  monarchy  ?  Who  defeated  the  impostor  ?  How  was  Macedonia 

punished  for  its  revolt  ? 

[553]     How  many  of  the  thousand  Acheeans  who  had  been  sent  to 

B     Rome  returned  ?     Who  of  these  endeavored  to  persuade  their 

countrymen    to   resist    the    Romans?     Who   proclaimed    war 

c     against  Sparta  ?     Who  defeated  him  ?  where  ?     Who  persisted 

in  carrying  on  the  war  ?     Who  superseded   Metellus  ?     What 

victory  did    he  gain?     Mention    his   other   acts.     When  was 

Greece  proclaimed  a  Roman  province  ?     Under  what  name  ? 

§  127.     The  Third  Punic  War. 

[554]  What  interrupted  the  peace  between  the  Romans  and  Car- 
A  thaginians  ?  On  whose  motion  was  the  peace  declared  at  an 

end  ?  What  unreasonable  demand  did  the  Romans  make,  which 
B  led  to  the  third  war  ?  How  was  the  city  taken  ?  By  whom  was 

it  destroyed  ?     Under  what  name  was  Carthage  made  a  Roman 

province  ? 

$  128.     Further  Wars  in  Spain. 

[555]     When  did  the  Romans  first  consider  Spain  as  one  of  their 

c     provinces  1    How  long  was  it  before  they  got  quiet  possession  of 

the  peninsula  ?     What  period  were  they  perpetually  occupied  in 

putting  down  revolts  of  the  Spanish    tribes  ?     Who  gained  a 

brilliant  victory  over  the   Celtiberi?     What  command  did  he 

D     give  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  towns  ?     Who  was  Viriathus  ? 

A     What  was  his  fate  ?    Who  took  Numantia  ?     How  long  did  the 

siege  last?     Whence  Scipio's  surname  of  Numantinus ? 

§  129.     Wars  against  the  Gauls,  Ligurians,  Carnians, 
and  Istrians. 

[556]     What  was  the  result  of  the  disputes  with  the  Cisalpine  Gauls 

B     and  Ligurians  ? 
[557]     *  How  long  were  the  Gallic  and  Ligurian  campaigns  carried 

c     on  ?     *  What  territory  was  denominated  pre-eminently  "  pro- 
vincia  1"     What  other  conquests  did  they  make  ? 

§  130.    First  Insurrection  of  the  Slaves  in  Sicily. 

'  558]     What  led  to  an  insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily  1     Who 
D    was  invited  to  become  their  king?    How  many  troops  had  he? 
How  was  an  end  put  to  the  insurrection  ? 


382  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [559 — 569. 

§  131.     Domestic  History  during  this  period. 

[559]     When  did  the  distinction  between  patricians  and  plebeians 
A     become  obsolete  ?     What   struggles  were    consequently  at   an 
end  1     What  did  the  term  "  Populus"  now  comprehend  ?    Who 
B     composed   the   new    order   of   nobility  ?      Who   were   termed 
ignobiles  or  obscuri  ?     Who  were  homines  novi  ?     What  ambi- 
tion had  the  nobles  with  regard  to  the  offices  of  state  ? 
[560]     *  How  were  the  expenses  of  the    public    games  defrayed  1 
c    »  Which  was  the  first  step  to  the  higher  offices  of  state  ?     *  To 
whom    was   the   equestrian    dignity   confined  ?     *  Who    were 
obliged  to  take  part  with  the  nobles  ?  why  ? 

[561]     Why   was   a   second   praetor   appointed?     Why  were  four 
A     other  praetors  soon  added  ?  when  ?     Why  did  these  magistrates 
remain  at  Rome  ?     What  titles  did  the  praetors  assume  in  the 
second  year  1    How  weie  provinces  assigned  to  them  ?    *  Men- 
tion the  four  quaestiones  perpetuae. 

[562]     *  What  was  the  meaning  of  the  term  "province?"     *  How 

c     did  the  provinces  generally  receive  their  constitution  1     *  What 

was  the  duty  of  the  provincial  governor  1     *  How  were  taxes 

imposed  in  the  provinces  1     *  Who  collected  them  ?     *  How 

were  the  provincial  garrisons  furnished  with  soldiers  ? 

[563]     *  What  was  the  nature  of  the  relations  of  Rome  with  other 

D     free  States  ? 

[564]     What  attempts  were  made  to  check  the  progress  of  luxury 
A    and  the  increasing  adoption  of  foreign  manners  ?     Who  was  the 
most  conspicuous  of  the  censors  ? 

§  132.    The  Two  Gracchi. 

[565]     What  was  the  condition  of  the  population  of  Rome  at  this 

c     time?     Who  revived  the  agrarian  law  of  Licinius?     What  was 

the  object  of  this  law  ?     Who  had  been  persuaded  by  the  senate 

to  interpose  his  veto  to  it  ?     How  did  Tiberius  wish  to  dispose 

of  the  treasures  bequeathed  to  the  Roman  people  by  Attalus  III.  1 

A     At  whose  instigation  was  Tiberius  assassinated  1     What  became 

of  Scipio  Naslca  1 

[566]  *  How  far  did  the  commissioners  for  carrying  out  the  agra- 
rian law  of  Gracchus  succeed  ?  *  What  proposal  did  Papirius 
Carbo  make  with  regard  to  the  tribunes  ]  *  Who  resisted  it  ? 
*  What  was  his  fate  1 

[567]     What  advantages  did  Caius  Sempronius  Gracchus  obtain  for 
c     the  people  1     Who  appeared  as  a  rival  tribune  to  C.  Gracchus  ? 
Where  was  Gracchus  sent?    What  law  did  he  propose  on  his  re- 
turn ?    Who  resisted  this  law  ?    What  was  the  end  of  Gracchus  ? 
[568]     *  How  did  the  Optimates  use   this  victory  over  the  com- 
A     mons  ?     *  What  was  the  lex  Thoria  ?     *  How  were  the  pauper 
citizens  now  principally  supported  ?     *  Who  came  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  people  ? 

§  133.     The  War  with  Jugurtha. 

[569J     How  had  Micipsa  divided  his  kingdom  ?     How  did  Jugurtha 
B    treat  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal  ?     Who  proposed  a  partition  of 


570 — 578.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  383 

the  kingdom  ?     Did  Jugurtha  accept  this  proposition  ?     Who  in- 
duced  the   Romans  to    declare  war  against  Jugurtha?     What 
u     daring  act  did   he    now  perform  ?     Who  overthrew  Jugurtha  1 
D     Where  did  he  fly  for  refuge  ?     Who  induced  Bocchus  to  deliver 
up   Jugurtha  ?     Who   was  now  rising    into    importance  ?     In 
whose  triumphal  procession  was  he  exhibited  ?     What  was  his 
A    fate  ?     How  was  Numidia  divided  ? 

§  134.     War  with  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones. 

[570]  Who  were  the  Cimbri  ?  Describe  their  advance.  What  was 
B  "their  demand  ?  What  was  their  success  1  Who  cut  them  off? 
c  Where  were  they  defeated  1  How  was  Marius  rewarded  1 

§  135.     Second  Insurrection  of  the  Slaves  in  Sicily. 

[571]  What  occasioned  a  second  insurrection  of  the  slaves  in 
D  Sicily  1  How  was  it  terminated  1 

$  136.     To  the  Social  War. 

[572]     What  ambitious  views   did    Marius   entertain?     What  was 
A     his  first  step  ?     Who  opposed  this  proposal  ?     Who  lost  their 
B     lives  ?     Why  was  the  commencement  of  actual  hostilities  de- 
ferred ?     Whose  quarrels  occasioned  a  civil  war  ? 
[573]     *  How  did  Marius  attempt  to  sustain  his  declining  influence  ? 
*  How  did  Sulla  become  a  rival  of  Marius  ? 

§  137.     The  Marsic  or  Social  War. 

[574]  What  ground  of  complaint  had  the  Italian  nations  against 
c  the  Romans  ?  What  aroused  the  Italian  confederates  to  deliver 

themselves  from  the  Roman  yoke  ? 

[575]  *  Mention  the  immediate  causes  of  the  war.  *  What  was 
A  the  project  of  Drusus?  *  Did  it  become  law?  *  What  was 

his  end  ? 

[576]     Who   now  formed    themselves   into    a    confederacy  against 
B     Rome  ?     What  was   their   plan  ?     What  was   the    lex  Julia  ? 
c     Name  the  three  the^res  of  war.     Who  commanded  in  each  of 
D     these  ?     What  was  done  to  prevent  the  new  citizens  from  gain- 
ing a  preponderance  over  the  old  ? 

§  138.     Civil  War  between  Marius  and  Sulla,  88 — 82  ; 
and  First  War  against  Mithridates,  87—84. 

[577]     When  was  Sulla  elected  consul?     What  command  did  he 
B     receive  ?     How  did  Marius  supplant  Sulla  ?     What  became  of 
c     Sulpicius  ?     Who  was  Cinna  ?     With  whom  did  he  act  in  con- 
cert?    Did  the  army  favor  them?     What  was    done?     Who 
nominated    themselves    to    the   consulship?     Who    succeeded 
Marius  ? 

"578]     What  plan  did  Mithridates  adopt  for  checking  the  progress 

A     of  the  Roman  arms  in  Asia  ?     What  was  his  first  step  towards 

the   accomplishment   of    this  mighty   project?     How   was   he 

furnished    with   an   occasion  ?     Where    was   Archelaus   sent  ? 

B     How   was-  his  arrival    in    Italy   prevented?     What  splendid 


384  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [579 588. 

victories  did  Sulla  obtain  ?     Who  had  now  the  conduct  of  the 
Mithridatic  war  ?     Who  murdered  him  ?     On  what  terms  waa 
a  peace  concluded  ? 
[579]     *  Describe  and  account  for   the  death  of  Fimbria.     *  Did 

c     China  oppose  Sulla's  return  to  Rome  ? 

[580]     Describe   Sulla's  return  to  Rome.     Where  did   C.    Marius 

A     retire  after  his  defeat  1     Who  blockaded  him  ?     What  attempt 

B     was  made  by  the  Samnites  ?     With  what  success  1     How  were 

the  Samnites  and  Prsenestines  treated  ?     What  was  the  fate  of 

Marius  ? 

[581]  Who  were  now  proscribed  ?  What  opportunity  did  this 
c  afford  Sulla  1  How  did  he  show  his  authority  1  When  did  he 

lay  down  his  power  1     Where  did  he  die  ? 

[582]     Who  undertook   the    annihilation    of   the    Marian   party? 
*  Relate  his  successes. 

§  139.     Changes  effected  in  the  Constitution  by  Sulla. 

583]     What  was  the  nature   of  the   changes  introduced  into  the 

B     constitution  by  Sulla  1     What  was  his  first  plan  1     What  did  he 

do  in  order  t»  secure  a  popular  party  ?     How  were  these  new 

citizens  named  1     How  was  the  tribunitial  power  restrained  1 

What  was  the  only  privilege  which  the  tribunes  were  allowed  to 

c     retain  1     How  did  he  endeavor  to  raise  the  senate  ?     Who  were 

D     declared  ex  officio  members   of  the  senate  1     Why  was  their 

number  augmented  to  twenty?     What  other  plan  did  he  adopt 

for  strengthening  the  aristocracy  ?  and  his  own  party  ?     What 

did  he  do  in  order  to  diminish  the  influence  of  the  people  in  the 

A     courts  of  justice  ? 

[584]     *  What  was  settled  by  the  lex  annalis  ?     *  What  criminal 

laws  were  re-enacted  by  Sulla  ? 

[585]     Who  proposed  the  repeal  of  all  Sulla's  laws  1     Who  opposed 
B     the  measure  ?     What  was  the  first  step  ?      Who  effected  the 
restoration  of  the  tribunitial  power  in  its  fullest  extent  ?     What 
other  enactment  did  he  procure  ? 

§  140.     The  War  against  Sertorius. 

[586]  Who  was  Q.  Sertorius  ?  Who  chose  him  as  their  leader  ? 
c  Who  supported  him  ?  Whom  did  he  make  head  against  ? 
A  Who  concluded  an  alliance  with  Sertorius  ?  Who  assassinated 

Sertorius  ?     What  was   the   fate   of  his  murderer  ?     Did  this 

victory  put  an  end  to  the  war  ? 

§  141.     The  Servile  War;  or  War  of  the  Gladiators 
and  Slaves. 

[587]     Give  an  account  of  the  war  of  the  gladiators.     By  whom 
B     were  they  headed?     Who  defeated  them?     Who  utterly  de- 
stroyed them  ? 

[588]     *  Who  claimed  the  merit  of  putting  an  end  to  the  servile 
c    war  ?     *  What  means  did  Pompey  take  to  secure  popular  favor  ? 
»  What  command  was  conferred  upon  him  ? 


589 — 596.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  385 

§    142.     War  against  the  Pirates. 

[589]  Mention  the  causes  of  the  power  of  the  pirates  in  Cilicia  and 
A  Isauria.  Give  an  account  of  the  ravages  committed  by  the 
B  pirates.  Who  fell  into  their  hands  ?  What  scourge  visited 

Rome   in  consequence  of  their  depredations  ?      Who  defeated! 

these  pirates  1  How  long  did  his  campaigns  last  1  How  did  he 
c  dispose  of  the  pirates  1  How  long  did  Crete  hold  out  ?  Who 

subdued  it  1 

§  143.     The  two  last  Wars  against  Mithridates. 

[590]     *  Did  Mithridates  observe  the  terms  of  the  peace  1     *  Who 

resisted  him  1     *  With  what  success  ? 

[591]     Who   bequeathed   his   dominions   to   the   Romans?     What 

A    alliance   did    Mithridates  form  ?      Whom  did   he   overthrow  1 

where  ?     Give  an  account  of  the  successes  of  Lucullus  against 

B     Mithridates.     What   prevented   Lucullus  from  profiting  by  his 

victories  ?     By  whom  was  Lucullus  superseded  in  his  command  ? 

c     why?     Where  did  Mithridates  fly  to?     How  did  Pompey  treat 

Tigranes  ?     What  portion  of  his  dominions  did  he  surrender  ? 

D     How  far  did  Pompey  pursue  Mithridates  ?     On  his  return  what 

did  he  do  in  Pontus,  Syria,  and  Palestine  ? 

[592]  *  What  became  of  Mithridates?  *  Who  succeeded  him? 
A  *  How  was  Pompey  hailed  at  Rome  ? 

§  144.     Catiline's  Conspiracy. 

[593]  What  conspiracy  was  set  on  foot  by  Catiline  ?  Why  had  he 
been  rejected  as  a  candidate  for  the  consulship  ?  Who  favored 

B  the  project  of  Catiline  ?  By  whom  was  his  conspiracy  detected  ? 
Who  rendered  all  further  attempts  of  the  conspirators  fruitless? 

C  How  was  Catiline  driven  from  the  city  ?  Where  did  he  go  ? 
How  were  some  of  the  conspirators  discovered  ?  How  were 
they  treated?  What  battle  was  fought?  Who  routed  the 
rebel  forces  ?  Who  fell  in  the  battle  ? 

§  145.     The  First  Triumvirate. 

[594]     What  discovery  did  Caesar  make  with  regard  to  the  republic  ? 
A     What  resolution  did  he  form  in  consequence  of  this  discovery  ? 
[595]     *  How  did  he  follow  out  his  plan  ?     *  What  popular  mea- 
sures did  he  support  ?     *  What  subjected  him  to  the  suspicion 
of  being  concerned  in  Catiline's  conspiracy  ? 

7596]     What  demand  did  Pompey  make  on   his  return  to  Rome? 
'B     Who  resisted  Casar  as  candidate  for  the  consulship?       Who 
was  chosen  his  colleague?     Who  effected  a  reconciliation  be- 
c     tween  Pompey  and  Crassus  ?     What  was '  the  first  triumvirate  ?' 
What  was  the  aim  of  each  of  its  members?     What  measure  did 
Caesar   carry  in   defiance    of  all  opposition   from    the  senate  ? 
A     Who  obtained  his  only  daughter  in  marriage  ?     What  appoint- 
ment did  he  procure  for  himself?     How  did   the  senate  meet 
B     this  last  usurpation  of  their  rights  ?     By  whose  means  did  Caesar 
get  Cato  and  Cicero  out  of  the  way?     Where  was  Cato  sent? 


386  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [597 — 610. 

What  was  assigned  to  him?     How  was  Caesar  treated  ?     When 
was  he  recalled  ?     On  whose  proposal  ? 
[597]     *  Where  did  the  triumviri  hold  a  meeting  ?      *  What  was 

agreed  at  it  ?     *  Who  supplied  Caesar  with  fresh  legions  ? 
« 

§  146.     Caesar's  War  in  Gaul. 

[598]     With  what  view  did  Caesar  form  a  standing  army  ? 
[599]     *  How  did  the  subjugation  of  Gaul  differ  from  that  of  the 
A     east  ? 

[600]     Where  did  the  Helvetii  come  from  ?     Whose  territories  did 
B     they  plunder  ?     Who  checked  them  1      Where  were  the  Ger- 
c     mans  defeated?      Who  commanded  them?      What  reputation 
had    the    Belgians?      What  was   the  amount  of  their  forces  1 
How  did  Caesar  overcome  them  ?     Who  offered  the  stoutest  re- 
sistance to  the  arms  of  Caesar  ? 
[601]     *  Who  vanquished  the  Veneti?  the  Aquitani?     *  How  much 

D     of  Gaul  was  now  subjugated  ? 

[602]     What  tribes  had  been  driven  by  the  Suevi  across  the  Lower 
Rhine  into  Belgium  ?     Who  compelled  them  to  return  ?     How 
did  Caesar  now  find  employment  for  his  legions  ?     Were  Caesar's 
expeditions  to  Britain  attended  by  any  important  results  ? 
[603]     What  grievances,  besides  the  loss  of  their  freedom,  induced 
the  Gauls  to  make  repeated  attempts  to  throw  off  the  Roman 
A     yoke  ?     Who  headed  the  insurrection  ?     Did  it  succeed  1     Who 
B     surrendered  ?     By  what  means  did  Caesar  succeed  in  tranquil- 
lizing the  Gauls  1 

§  147.     The  Civil  War  between  Casar  and  Pompey. 
[604]     What  province  was  assigned  to  Crassus?      What  was  his 
c     fate?     Who  was  appointed  to  the  two  Spains?     Who  governed 
them  ?     Why  did  Pompey  remain  at  Rome  ?     Why  did  he  defer 
the  election  of  consuls  ? 

[605]     *  What  was  the   first  step  taken   by  the  senate  to  reduce 
A     Caesar's  power  1     *  What  did  they  next  require  ?     *  What  was 

Caesar's  offer  ?     *  How  was  it  treated  ? 

[606]     What   did  Caesar   determine   to   do?      What   measure  did 

B     Pompey  adopt  ?     Describe  the  success  of  Caesar.     How  did  he 

employ  his  time  till  vessels  were  built  to  transport  his  troops  ? 

c     Who  appointed  him  dictator  ?     How  soon  did  he  resign  this  office  1 

*  What  advantage  did  Pompey  gain ?     *  How  was  this  lost? 
[607]     Where  was  the  decisive  battle  fought  between  Pompey  and 
A     Caesar  ?  with  what  result  ?       What  forces  met  on  each  side  ? 

What  became  of  Pompey  ? 

[608]  *  Why  did  Caesar  dispatch  M.  Antonius  into  Italy  ?  *  How 
far  did  he  succeed  in  his  object  ? 

§  148.     Cesar's  Wars  in  the  East. 

[609]  In  what  state  did  Caesar  find  Egypt  on  his  arrival  there? 
What  was  the  consequence  of  his  interference  ?  Whom  did 
Caesar  make  queen  of  Egypt  ? 

[610]     Who  availed  himself  of  the  disruption  of  the  Roman   re- 
c     public  to  extend  the  limits  of  his  empire  I      How  far  did  his 


611 — 620.]  OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY.  387 

A     attempt  succeed?      Who  checked  and  defeated  him?      What 
was  his  end? 

§  149.     Caesar's  last  Wars  against  the  Partisans  of 

Pompey. 

"611]  What  party  was  formed  against  Caesar  in  Africa?  Where 
B  were  they  overtnrown  ?  What  were  the  losses  on  both  sides  1 

What  was  the  fate  of  Cato  ? 

[612]     *  What  honors  awaited  Caesar  at  Rome  ?     *  How  were  the 
c     people  and  soldiers  treated  ?     *  What  measures  did  Caesar  take 
for  the  restoration  of  order  ?    *  Who  assisted  him  in  his  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar? 

[613]  Where  had  the  sons  of  Pompey  collected  a  considerable 
A  force  ?  Where  was  the  decisive  battle  fought  ?  Who  was 
victorious  ?  Did  he  obtain  an  easy  victory  ?  How  many  of 
Pompey's  adherents  were  slain  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Cn. 
Pompey  ?  what  of  Sextus  ?  How  was  Caesar  honored  on  his 
return? 

§  150.     Death  of  Casar. 

[614]     Enumerate  the  offices  to  which  Caesar  was  appointed  by  the 

B     senate,  and  the  honors  that  were  heaped  upon  him.     What  act 

c     was  a  formal  recognition  of  his  supremacy  ?     How  was  Caesar 

D     occupied  during  the  last  months  of  his  life  ?     What  were  his 

military  plans?     Why  did  he  refuse  the  diadem  when  presented 

to  him  ?     When  were  the  Sibylline  books  destroyed  ?     What 

A     prophecy  was  discovered  in  the  forged  books  ?     What  demand 

was  then  made  ?      Who  formed  a  conspiracy  against  Caesar  ? 

Describe  the  death  of  Caesar. 

§  151.     Consequences  of  Casar's  Assassination. 
[615]     How  did  his  murderers  proceed  after  his  death  ?     Who  re- 
B     fused  to  sanction  the  acts  of   the  senate  ?      How  did  Antony 
c     drive  the  assassins  from  the  city  ?     What  powers  did  Antony 
D     assume  ?     Who  resisted  him  ?     What  was  his  course  ? 
[616]     What    occasioned    the    civil  war   of  Mutina?      Why   was 
A     Antony  denounced  by  the  senate  ?     Who  marched  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Brutus?      Where  was  Antony  defeated?     What  was 
the  present  plan  of  Octavian  as  to  Antony  ? 

§  152.     The  Second  Triumvirate. 

[617]  How  did  Octavian  obtain  the  consulship  ?  Who  formed  the 
second  triumvirate  ?  Who  were  required  to  confirm  the  trium- 
viri in  their  office  ?  For  how  long  a  period  ? 

[618]  How  did  the  triumviri  proceed  before  they  commenced  war 
c  against  the  assassins  of  Caesar?  Who  was  among  these  victims  ? 
A  Where  were  Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated?  What  was  their 
B  fate  ?  Where  did  the  victors  proceed  ?  Who  was  summoned 

to  Tarsus  by  Antony  ?  why  ? 

J619]  *  Who  occasioned  the  Perusian  civil  war  ?  *  Give  an  ac- 
count of  this  war. 

[620]  What  smoothed  the  way  for  a  reconciliation  between  Antony 
c  and  Octavian  ?  How  was  the  empire  divided  among  the  trium- 


388  QUESTIONS    TO    MANUAL  [621 633. 

viri  ?  How  was  the  friendship  of  Antony  and  Octavian  cement- 
ed 1  Who  blockaded  Italy  ?  On  what  terms  was  an  armistice 
concluded  ? 

[621]     What  occasioned  a  renewal  of  the  war  between  Octavian  and 
A     S.  Pompeius?     Where  was  Pompey  defeated?     What  was  his 
end  ?     How  was  Lepidus  defeated  in  his  design  on  Sicily  ? 

§  153.     Foreign  Wars  of  Antony  and  Octavian. 
[622]     What   countries   were    overrun    by  the    Parthians  ?      Who 
B     drove  them  across  the  Euphrates  ?     What  portion  of  the  Ro- 
man possessions  in  Asia  was  presented  to  Cleopatra  ?     What 
expedition  was  undertaken  by  Antony  in  conjunction  with  Arta- 
c     vasdes?      Why  was  he  compelled  to  retreat?      Who  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  legitimate  son  of  Caesar  ?  why  ? 
623]     What  expeditions  were  now  undertaken  by  Octavian?  why? 
A     Who  were  now  subjected  to  the  authority  of  Rome  ? 

§  154.     The  War  between  Octavian  and  Antony. 

[624]     When  did  the  term  of  the  triumviral  league  cease  ?     Against 
B     whom  did  the  senate  declare  war  ?      What  was  the  immediate 

cause  of  hostilities? 

[625]     *  How  did  Antony  meet  his  opponents  ? 
[626]     Describe  the  battle  of  Actium  and  its  result.     Where  did  Oc- 
D     tavian  then  proceed  ?      *  What  became  of  Antony  ?      *  What 
of  Cleopatra  ? 

§  155.     C.  Julius  Ctesar  Octavianus  Augustus. 

[627]     When  did  Octavian  return  to  Rome  ?      What  victories  were 
A     celebrated  by  a  triple  triumph  ?     What  took  place  in  consequence 
B     of  the  general  peace  that  now  prevailed  ?      How  did  Octavian 
seek  to  establish  his  authority  ?     How  far,  if  at  all,  was  the  old 
constitution  respected  I     When  was  the  title  of  Augustus  con- 
ferred on  Octavian  ?     Who  bore  this  title  afterwards  ? 
[628]     *  What  did  the  imperial  prerogative  comprehend  ?     *  How 

c     was  the  election  of  a  successor  conducted? 

[629]  *  How  did  Octavian  limit  the  number  of  the  senate  ?  *  How 
A  were  members  of  the  senate  now  appointed  ?  *  Could  any  but 
Romans  be  appointed  ?  *  If  so,  on  what  terms  ?  *  Who  were 
the  advisers  of  the  Imperator  ?  *  When  did  the  people  cease 
to  have  any  share  in  legislation  ?  *  How  were  their  decisions 
superseded  ? 

[630]  *  What  was  the  power  of  the  ancient  magistrates  ?  »  What 
B  new  officers  were  appointed  ?  *  What  was  the  duty  of  the  Prae- 
fectus  urbi  ?  of  the  Prsefecti  praetorio  ?  of  the  Preefectus  annonae  ? 
»  Who  exercised  considerable  influence  over  these  appoint- 
ments ?  *  When  were  they  taken  entirely  in  their  own  hands 
by  the  emperors  ? 

[631]     *  How  were  Rome  and  Italy  divided  ?      *  How  were   the 
c     other  cities  distinguished  ?     *  Who  presided  over  the  population 

of  these  cities  ? 

[632]     *  How  were  the  provinces  divided  by  Octavian  ? 
[633]     *  From   what    sources  was   the  military  ararium  raised  ? 


634 — 644.]  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  389 

*  By  what  kind  of  troops  were  the  frontiers  protected  ?    *  Where 
were  they  quartered  1 

[634]     What  was  the  main  object  of  the  wars  of  Augustus?     How 

B     was  the  eastern  frontier  of  the   empire  secured?     Who  were 

sent   to  protect  Italy  and  Gaul   against   the    invasions  of  the 

Germanic   tribes  ?     How  were  the   people  of  lower  Germany 

won  ?     How  did  the  Romans  treat  the  country  from  the  Rhine 

c     to  the  Elbe  ?     What  occasioned  an  insurrection  of  the  tribes  of 

Lower  Germany  ?     How  was  Varus  misled  ?     What  was  the 

consequence  ? 

[635]  *  How  were  the  remaining  days  of  Augustus  rendered 
D  miserable  ?  *  Where  did  the  emperor  die  1  *  At  what  age  1 

§  156.    Four  Emperors  of  the  House  of  Lima. 

[636]     What  were  the  chief  traits   in   the  character  of  Tiberius  1 

A     Whom  did  he  adopt  ?  by  whose  persuasion  ?    Why  did  Tiberius 

recall  Germanicus  from  Germany  ?     What  successes  had  he  ob- 

B     tained  there  ?     What  did  he  achieve  in  the  east  ?     What  was 

his  fate  ?     What  measure  did  Tiberius  take  for  the  security  of 

his  person  ?     Who  was  Sejanus  ?     Why  did  Tiberius  retire  from 

c     Rome  ?     What  ambitious  project  did  Sejanus  form  1     How  did 

Tiberius  die1? 

[637]  Who  succeeded  Tiberius?  Give  some  account  of  him.  What 
D  form  of  government  did  the  senate  wish  to  re-establish  ?  Who 
A  resisted  them  ? 

[638]  Who  succeeded  Caligula  ?  How  did  this  prince  conduct 
A  himself?  What  important  conquest  began  in  this  reign  ? 

*  What  was  the  character  of  Agrippina  ? 

[639]     How  did  Nero  begin  his  reign  ?     Under  whose  direction  was 
B     he  ?     What  horrible  murders  did  he  perpetrate  ?     When  did  he 
let  loose  his  ferocious  disposition  ?     What  inconsistencies  was 
c     he  guilty  of?     On  whom  did  Nero  throw  the  blame  of  having 
set  Rome  on  fire  ?     Who  was  supposed  to  be  the  real  criminal  1 
Describe  the  situation  of  his  palace.     What  occasioned  a  gene- 
ral insurrection  throughout  the  empire  ?     Who  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  his  place  ?     What  was  the  fate  of  Nero  1 

§  157.     Three  Emperors  proclaimed  by  the  Legions. 

[640]     How  did  Sulpicius  Galba  render  himself  odious  ?     Who  put 

A     him  to  death  ? 
[641]     Who  was  Otho  ?     Who  disputed   his  appointment?     How 

B     did  he  die  ? 
[642]     Who  proclaimed  Vespasian  ? 

§  158.     The  Three  Flami. 

[643]     Enumerate    the    measures    of  Vespasian.     What    was    his 

c     character  ?     Who  was   appointed    to  crush   the   revolt  of  the 

Jews  ?     When  was  Jerusalem  stormed  ?     Who  suppressed  the 

A     insurrection  of  the  Batavi  ?     Who  commenced  afresh  the  war 

in  Britain  ?     What  was  the  character  of  his  administration  ? 
'644]     What  was  the  surname  of  Titus?  why?     What  occurred 
during  his  reign  ? 


390  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [645 — 659, 

[645]  Who  was  Domitian  ?  How  did  he  commence  his  reign  ? 
B  What  was  his  chief  amusement  ?  How  did  he  expose  his 
c  vanity  ?  Why  was  Agricola  recalled  from  Britain  ?  How  did 

he  appease  the  Dacians  1     How  was  this  expedition  celebrated  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  Domitian  ? 

§  159.     The  most  flourishing  period  of  the  Empire. 

[646]     Who  succeeded  Domitian  ?     How  did  he  give  discontent1? 

D     How  did  he  avoid  the  vengeance  of  the  Praetorians  ? 
[647]     Who  was  Trajanus  1     How  did   he  exert  himself?     What 
A     success  had  he  against  the  Dacians  1     How  are    these  events 
represented  ?     How  did    his  campaigns    against  the  Parthians 
B     terminate  ?     Why  was  he  compelled  to  retreat  ? 
[648]     Who  succeeded  him1?     What  was  his  character  ?     To  what 
c     was  his  attention  exclusively  directed  ?     How  was  this  object 
D     promoted  ?     What  occasioned    a    terrible  insurrection   in  this 
A     reign  ?     How  was  it  suppressed  ?     Who  succeeded  Hadrian  1 
[649J     What  was  the  character  of  his  reign  1     How  was  a  portion 

of  his  time  occupied  1 

[650]     Who   succeeded   Antoninus  ?      Who   ascended   the   throne 

B     with  him  ?     At  whose  desire  1     Who  undertook  a  war  against 

the  Parthians  ?     Who  had  the  management  of  the  campaign  ? 

c     What  occasioned  the  great  war  of   the  Marcomanni  1     Who 

conducted  it  1     With  what  success  ? 

§  160.     Decline  of  the  Empire  under  the  Preetorians. 

[651]     Who  succeeded  M.  Aurelius  ?     On  what  terms  did  he  grant 

A    peace    to  the    Marcomanni  and  Quadi  ?     To  whom  was   the 

government  intrusted  ?     How  did  the  emperor  conduct  himself? 

What  was  the  consequence  ? 

r652]     Who  was  Pertinax  ?     How  long  did   he  reign  1     How  did 

B     Didius  Julianus  obtain  the  throne  ?     Who  set  Julianus  aside  ? 
[654]     What  were  the  measures  of  Severus  ?     Who  assisted  him  in 
c     the  amendment  of  the  legal  code  ?    What  expedition  did  Severus 
undertake  in  his  old  age  1     Where  did  he  die  1     Whose  ingrati- 
tude occasioned  his  death  ? 

[655]     *  How  did  Caracalla  begin  his  reign  ?     *  Who  was  among 
D     the  victims  I     *  What  did  he  do  in  order  to  satisfy  the  greedi- 
ness of  his  soldiers,  and   procure  sufficient  funds  for  his  own 
A     prodigal  expenditures?     *  What  characters  did   he  assume  in 

Macedonia  and  Asia  ?     *  Who  murdered  him  ? 
[656]     *  Who  succeeded  Caracalla?     *  How  did   he  make  peace 

B     with  the  Parthians  ] 

[657]  *  What  led  to  the  promotion  of  Heliogabalus  to  the  throne? 
*  Who  was  he?  *  What  was  his  character?  *  How  did  he 
forfeit  his  life  ? 

[658]     What   was   the   character  of  Alexander   Severus*s   reign  ? 

D     What  new  empire  was  now  founded  ?     How  far  did  the  new 

sovereign  advance  ?     Who  gained    important  advantages  over 

him  ?     What  led  to  the  death  of  Alexander  Severus  ?     Who 

accompanied  him  in  all  his  expeditions  ? 

[659]     What  waa  the  condition  of  the  empire  under  the  successors 


600 — 674.]  01     ANCIENT    HISTORY.  391 

A  of  Alexander  Severus  ?  How  did  the  nine  emperors  who 
reigned  during  tins  period  of  thirty-live  years  generally  lose 
their  lives  ? 

[GGO]     *  Who  was  Maximinns  •      *  Whom  did  the  senate  now  nom- 
B     inate  to  the  imperial  dignity?     *  What  was  their  fate?  what 

that  of  Maxiniinus  ? 
[661]     *  How  did  Gordianus  govern? 
[665]     *  What  was  the  reign  of  Philippus  celebrated  for  1 
[6831     *  Who  was  Decius  ?     *  Where  was  he  slain? 
[fi()4]     *  Why  was  Gallus  deposed  and  murdered  ?     *  By  whom  ? 
[(>(>;>]     *  Who  put  JEmilianus  to  deatli  ? 
[660]     *  Who  invaded  the  Roman  dominions  during  the  reign  of 

D     Valerianus  ?     *  Who  took  the  rmprror  prisoner'? 

[667]     *  How  ninny  rivals   had  (Jallicnus?     *  Who  maintained  his 

position  in  Gaul  and  Spain  ?     *  Who  obtained  with  Gallienus 

the  sovereignty  of  the  east  ?     *  Under  whom  did  Palmyra  be- 

A     come  a  most  flourishing  city?     *  How  did  Gallienus  meet  with 

his  death  ?     *  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

[668]  With  what  success  did  Claudius  II.  begin  his  reign  ?  *  What 
victories  did  he  gain  over  the  barbanens?  *  What  was  his 
death?  *  Who  succeeded  him? 

[669]     What    obtained    for    Aurelianus    the    surname   of  restitutor 
B     patriae  ?     What  province  was  abandoned  ?     What  tribes  were 
driven  back  into  their  own  country  ?    Who  was  Zenobia  ?    Give 
c     an  account  of  Aurelian's  victories  over  Zenobia.     Why  was  she 
conveyed  to  Rome  ?     How  were  Palmyra  and  its  inhabitants 
treated  ?     What  were  Aurelian's  next  victories  ?     Why  was  the 
emperor  become  odious  ?     At  whose  instigation  was  he  assassi- 
nated ? 

[670]     *  How  long  did  Tacitus  and  Florianus  reign  ?     What  were 

A     the  questions  of  Probus  on  ascending  the  throne  ?     How  far  did 

he  succeed  ?     What  plan  did  the  emperor  put  in  execution  for 

re-peopling  the  deserted  provinces  ?     What  occasioned  the  dis 

content     f  his  soldiers?     How  did  they  show  it?     Who  was 

chosen  as  his  successor  ? 

[671]     *  Who  were  appointed  his  co-regents  ?     *  How  did  he  lose 

his  life  ? 

[672]     *  Who  succeeded  Carus  ?     *  What  was  the  fate  of  Carhms 
c     and  Numerianus  ? 

§  161.     Period  occupied  by  partitions  of  the  Empire, 
until  the  reign  of  Constantine. 

[673]     Who  succeeded  Carinus  and  Numerianus  ?     To  whom  was 
committed  the  administration  of  the  western  district?     Where 
did  Diocletian  establish  his  residence?     Where  did  his  colleague 
D     reside  ?     Why  were  the  emperors  compelled    to  appoint  col- 
leagues?    Who  were  they?    What  was  their  task  ?    What  rival 
A     emperors  established  themselves  ?     What  were  the  successes  of 
B     Galerius?     How  were  the  Christians  treated?     Which  of  the 
emperors  abdicated  ?  why  ?     How  did  he  spend  the  rest  of  his 
days  ? 

[674]     When  did  the  death  of  Constantius  happen?     Who  was  pro- 
18 


392  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [675 — 688. 

claimed  emperor  in  Britain?     In  what  year  did  Constantinua 

become  sole  occupant  of  the  imperial  throne  ? 
[675]     *  How    many    emperors    were    there    in    the    year    3U8  ? 

c     *  Name  them. 
[676]     *  What  became  of  Constantine's  competitors? 

§  162.     Constantine  the  Great,  sole  Emperor. 

[677]     What  induced  Constantine  to  embrace  Christianity?     Who 
A     assembled  the  first  oecumenical  council  ?  where  ?     What  doc- 
trine was  discussed  ?     What  was  the  result  of  the  council  ? 
[678]     How  did  Constantine  lay  the  foundation  of  a  future  division 
B     of  the  empire?     How  was  the  new  capital  named  at  its  dedica- 
tion ?     How  afterwards  ?     Were  the  capitals  placed  on  an  equal 
footing  ?     How  was  the  empire  divided  I     Who  was  at  the  head 
c     of  the  state  ?     What  titles  did  he  receive  ?     How  many  praefecti 
praetorio  were  appointed  ?     Why  did  Constantine  increase  their 
A     number  ?     Name  their    districts.     To  whom  was  the  military 
command  transferred  ?     How  were  the  dioceses  administered  ? 
and  the  provinces  ?     What  were  the  commanders  of  the  troops 
termed  ? 

[679]     *  Enumerate  the  seven   chief  court  offices.     *  What  were 

B     the  duties  of  these  respectively  ?     *  Who  composed  the  council 

of  the    emperor?     *  What    institutions    of  former   days  were 

retained  ?    *  How  were  the  civil  and  military  officers  designated  ? 

[680]     *  What  taxes  were  imposed  ? 

[681]     To  whom  did  Constantine  give  assistance  towards  the  end  of 
his  reign  ?     What  people  did  he  settle  in  the  Roman  province 
on  the  Danube  1     What  was  the  fate  of  his  eldest  son  ?  and  Ilia 
wife] 
§  163.     The  successors  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the 

permanent  division  of  the  Empire. 
[682]     Of  Constantine's   sons  who   became  at   last  sole  emperor  ? 

A     What  became  of  the  others  ? 

[684]     Who  invaded  Gaul  ?     To  whom  did  Constantius  intrust  the 
B     defence    of  that    province  ?     \Vhat    excited    the    envy    of  the 
emperor  ?     Why  did  he  withdraw  several  legions  from  Julian  ? 
Did  the  legions  obey  ? 

[685]     How  was  Julian  perverted  to  paganism  ?     How  did  he  show 

c     his  hatred  against  Christianity  ?     Did  he  restore  the  temple  at 

Jerusalem?      What     military    expedition    did    he   undertake? 

A.     With  what  success?     What  caused  his  death  ?     Who  succeeded 

him  ? 
[686]     Did  Jovianus  accept  the  conditions  of  peace  offered  by  the 

Persians?     What  were  they  ?     Who  was  chosen  his  successor 
[687]     Who  was  appointed  by  Valentinianus  to  be  his  co-regent? 

B  What  part  of  the.  empire  was  assigned  to  this  co-rc^nit  I 
[688]  *  How  was  Valentinian  occupied  during  th«'  whole  of  his 
n-ign?  *  \Vh.-it  occaaioned  his  death  I  *  Who  ravaged  Hritain 
at  thia  time?  *  Who  re-conquered  it?  *  How  far  di<l  In- 
extend  the  frontier?  *  Give  an  account  of  Valens.  *  How 
did  Procopius  secure  his  e. Action?  *  What  was  his  fate? 
*  What  wars  did  Valens  carry  on  ? 


689 702.]  OF    ANCIENT   HISTORY.  393 

[689]  Who  attacked  the  Goths?  Where  did  Valens  grant  them 
A  settlements  I  \Vliat  drove  them  to  revolt?  Where  did  tlu-y 
defeat  Valens? 

[G90]  Who  succeeded  Valens?  How  did  Theodosius  terminate  the 
B  war  ?  Who  were  his  sons  ? 

§  164.     The  Western  Roman  Empire— to  its  Fall 

[692]     Who  had  the  guardianship  of  Honorius?     Where  was  the 

A     imperial  residence  fixed  ? 

[(>!>.'{]     Give  an  account  of  the  war  with  Alnric,  king  of  the  West 
A     Goths  [or  Visigoths].     Where  was  he  defeated  ?     By  whom? 
[695]     Why  were   the   legions   quartered    in    Britain   and    on  the 
Rhine  recalled  ?      What  tribes  overran  the  western  provinces 
without  opposition  ?     Where  did  these  settle  ?     Who  occupied 
the  tracts  of  country  which  the  invaders  had  quitted  ? 
[696]     On  what  ground  was  Stilicho  condemned  to  death  ?     Why 
c     did  Alaric  persuade  Attalus  the  praef.  urbi  to  accept  the    im- 
D     perial  dignity  ?     Was   he  soon  deposed  ?     In   what   year  was 
A     Rome  besieged   and    taken?     Where   did   Alaric    die?     Who 
succeeded  Alaric  ?     Did  he  conclude   a  peace  with  Honorius  ? 
Where  did  he  lead  the  Visigoths  ? 
[697]     *  What   was   the   state    of  the  western   empire  ?     *  Who 

attempted  to  depose  Honorius? 

[698]     -Who  was   guardian  of  Valentinian    III.  ?     What    appoint- 
ment did  Aetius  receive  ?     What  troubles  did  the  intrigues  of 
c     this  minister  involve  his  mistress  in  ?     To  whom  did  Bonifacius 
D     apply  for  aid  ?     How  did  the  barbarians  behave  ?     What  was 
the  then  state  of  Britain  ?     Whose  aid  did  a  British  prince  solicit? 
A     Who  commanded  the  expedition  ?     What  kingdoms  did  they 
establish  ?     Who  formed  an  alliance  against  the  West  Goths 
and  Latins  ?      Of  what  nations   were  the    forces   composed  ? 
Who  defeated  them  ?  where  ?     Describe  the  progress  of  Attila. 
B     What  was   the   ambition   of  Aetius?      Who   murdered   him? 

Who  assassinated  Valentinian  ? 

[699]  Who  was  next  called  to  the  throne?  How  did  Eudoxia 
c  show  her  indignation  at  being  compelled  to  marry  Maximus  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  Maximus  ? 
[700]     How  was  the  empire  ruled    after  the  death  of  Maximus  ? 

D     What  authority  did  these  persons  possess  ? 

[701]  *  Who  was  the  immediate  successor  of  Maximus?  *  Who 
was  he  ?  *  What  was  his  fate  ?  *  Who  was  regarded  as 
regent  during  the  interregnum  ?  *  Who  assumed  the  imperial 
title?  *  Describe  the  chief  events  of  his  reign.  *  Who 
occasioned  his  death  ?  *  Who  now  exercised  sovereign  power  ? 
B  *  Who  governed  the  western  empire  after  the  death  of  Severus? 

*  By    whose    consent     was    Anthemius    appointed    emperor  ? 

*  Why   was  Anicius  Olybrius   proclaimed    emperor?     *  What 
c     caused  the  death  of  Olybrius  and  Ricimer?     *  Why  was  Glyce- 
rins soon  compelled  to    resign    his   throne  ?     *  Who  followed 
him  ? 

[702]     Who  had  ruled  Italy  since  the  death  of  Ricimer?     How  did 
Odoacer  get  possession  of  the  throne  ?     In  what  year  ? 


394  QUESTIONS   TO   MANUAL  [703 — 715. 


§  165.     Religion,  $c.  of  the  Romans. 

[703]     To  whom  were  the  Romans  accustomed  to  ascribe  the  esta- 

A  blishment  of  their  religion  ?  What  was  the  original  element  of 
the  Roman  national  religion?  What  was  afterwards  added? 

B  What  Greek  deities  correspond  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and 
Minerva  ?  To  what  circumstances  may  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  religion  at  the  commencement  of  the  first  century  be 
attributed  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  religion  in  the  last  years 

c     of  the  republic  ?      What  opposition  had  Christians  to  contend 

with  before  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  empire  ? 
[704]     *  Name  the  three  Capitolinc  divinities.     *  How  was  Jupiter 

D  regarded  ?  *  Which  were  the  most  remarkable  festivals  cele- 
brated in  his  honor  ?  *  What  was  under  the  special  protection 

A  of  Juno  ?  *  What  was  Juno's  office  ?  *  Who  was  the  patroness 
of  arts  and  manufactures  ?  *  Who  supplicated  her  aid? 


705 
706 
707 
708 


*  Which  of  the  planets  were  invoked  as  deities? 

*  Who  were  the  deities  of  the  lower  world  1 

*  Name  the  deities  of  the  elements. 


Name  the  deities  who  presided  over  agriculture  and  the 
rearing  of  cattle.  *  To  whom  did  the  Latins  attribute  the  first 
establishment  of  civilization  ?  *  Who  was  worshipped  on  earth 
c  under  the  title  of  Demeter  ?  *  What  were  the  Saturnalia  ? 
*  Who  was  the  protectress  of  the  flocks  ?  *  When  was  her  feast 
held  ?  why  ?  *  What  was  the  rank  of  Mars  among  the  Roman 
gods  ?  *  Where  was  the  census  held  ? 

[709]     *  Mention  the  oracular  deities  of  the  Latins.    *  In  what  way 
D     were    the   responses  of    Faunus  given  ?     *  How    was    Fauna 

styled  ?     *  To  what  class  did  she  confine  her  oracles  ? 
[710]     *  What  deities  presided  over  physical  and    moral   events? 
A     *  Give  an  account  of  Janus.     *  Who  were  the  Parcae  1    who 
Fortuna  ?     *  FYom  what  did  the  worship  of  Venus  derive  its 
B     importance  ?     *  To  what  personifications  of  abtract  ideas  and 
moral  qualities  were  divine  honors  paid?     *  Who  was  the  god 
of  trade  ?     who  of  war  ? 

[711]     *  How  were  life,  death,  and  existence  after  death  repre- 
sented in  the  Roman  religion? 

[712]     *  Who  were  the  Pontifices?     *  Who  was  the  president  of 
c     their  college  I    *  What  were  his  duties  ?    *  How  did  the  Augurs 
D     ascertain  the  will  of  the  gods  ?    *  Who  conducted  the  inspec- 
tion of  victims  ?     *  What  is  the  difference  between  auguria  and 
auspicia  ?     *  What  duties  were  assigned  to  the  inspectors  of  the 
A     Sibylline  books  ?    *  Who  were  the  Fetiales?    *  Who  chose  the 
Vestal  Virgins  ?    *  What  was  their  number  ?     *  How  was  their 
time  employed  ?     *  Why  were  the  Salii  Palatini  established  ? 
£713]     *  How  were  the  priests  of  particular  deities  termed?  *  What 
priests  belonged  to  the  order  of  Flamines  ?     *  Who  discharged 
the  duty  of  offering  public  sacrifices  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Tarquins  ] 
[714]     *  What  were  the  holy  places  ?     *  Of  what  did  the  sacred 

usages  con 
[715]     Did  the  Romans  cultivate    the   art    of  war    with   success  1 


716 727.]  OF    ANCIENT    HISTORY.  395 

c  What  citizens  served  in  the  array?  At  what  age?  Who  were 
exempt  ' 

716]     *  How  was  the  legion  originally  divided?     *  What  was  the 

D     division   at  a  later  period?     *  How  many  Icgious  composed  a 

consular  army  ? 
[717]     Who  were  excused  from  military  service  towards  the  end  of 

A  the  republic  ?  What  were  the  ten  cohortes  praetorianue  ?  Who 
commanded  the  army  at  different  periods?  Who  were  at  the 
head  of  each  legion?  Who  were  under  them?  Whom  did 
Constantine  place  in  command  of  his  forces  ?  When  was  the 
practice  of  giving  regular  pay  to  each  legionary  introduced? 

B     What  rewards  were  distributed  for  military  service  I 
[718]     Who  composed  the  mnritimc.  force  1     Describe  the  Roman 

vessels. 
[719]     Into  how  many  periods  may  the  history  of  Roman  literature 

c  be  divided  ?  When  did  the  first  begin  ?  Have  we  any  thing  of 
the  period  antecedent  to  this  date  ?  When  was  the  foundation 

D     of  Roman  literature,  properly  so  called,  laid?     Which  was  the 

A  second  period  ?  What  was  the  character  of  this  age  ?  When 
did  the  silver  age  commence?  when  terminate?  What  was  its 

B     character?     What  period  did  the  brazen  age  include?     What 

was  its  character  ? 
[720]     What  were  the  first  attempts  of  the  Romans  in  Epic  poetry  ? 

c     What  epic  history  did  Ennius  compile  ?      Who  cultivated  the 
historical,  and  who  the   didactic  epos?      Give  a  list  of  Ovid's 
works. 
[721]     Who  distinguished   themselves  as  translators  or  imitators  of 

A  Greek  models  ?  Who  were  the  principal  representatives  of 
New  Comedy?  *  How  does  it  appear  that  they  had  a  Roman 
drama,  strictly  so  called?  *  What  was  the  character  of  the 
Mimes  ?  *  How  did  these  degenerate  ? 

[722]  When  did  lyric  poetry  develope  itself?  What  was  its 
character?  What  were  th«  most  remarkable  performances  in 
this  department  ? 

723]      What  was  the  origin  of  Satire?     Who  raised  it  to  the  rank 

B     of  a  literary  production?     Who  gave  a  more  polished  character 
to  it  ?     What  was  the  character  of  the  Satires  of  Juvenal  and 
Persius  ? 
[724]     *  When  was  the  epigram  introduced  ?     *  What  collection  or 

c     collections  of  the  kind  is  still  extant  ? 

[725]     *  Whom  did  Pbuedrus  imitate  ?     Whom  did  Virgil  imitate  ? 
[726]     Which  was  the  most  distinguished  and  influential  branch  of 
Roman  literature?     Who  first  cultivated  it?     Which  was  the 
surest  road  to  honor  and  influence  ?     Who  were  the  most  dis- 
tinguished orators  ? 
[727]     *  When  did  oratory  lose  its  influence  over  the  government? 

B  *  Where  was  it  retained  ?  *  Where  have  we  it  in  its  most  de- 
based character  ?  *  Who  were  the  great  teachers  of  eloquence  ? 
*  On  what  accounts  are  the  letters  of  Pliny  and  Cicero  valu- 

c  able  ?  To  what  systems  did  the  Romans  confine  themselves  in 
the  study  of  philosophy  ?  On  what  ground  do  the  philosophical! 
writings  of  Cicero  entitle  him  to  the  highest  praise  ? 


396  QUESTIONS    TO    MANUAL,    ETC.       [729 731. 

f728]  *  Which  was  the  most  attractive  system  in  the  earlier  days 
of  the  monarchy  ?  *  To  what  system  did  Stoicism  give  place  ? 
n  *  What  was  the  great  work  of  the  elder  Pliny  I  *  When  did 
the  science  of  jurisprudence  attain  its  highest  degree  of  ex- 
cellence ?  *  Of  what  compilations  were  their  writings  the 
groundwork  ? 

729]  In  what  great  architectural  works  were  the  Romans  assisted 
A  by  the  Etruscans  ?  What  were  the  great  architectural  changes 
c  from  the  time  of  Sulla  to  that  of  Constantine  ?  Give  some 

account  of  Roman  sculpture. 
[730]     For  how  long  a  time  were  the  professors  of  the  art  of  paint- 

A     ing  almost  exclusively  Greeks? 

[731]     How  were  trade  and  manufactures  regarded  by  the  Romans? 
What  associations  were  formed  in  the  latter  days  of  the  repub- 
B    lie  ?     What  was  the  character  of  Roman  trade  ?     What  were 
the  imports? 


THE  END. 


tfnglisjj. 
A  MANUAL 

OP 

GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

BY   DR.   E.    F.  BOJESEN, 

Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Son* 
Translated  from  the  German. 

EDITED,    WITH   NOTES    AND   A   COMPLETE    SERIES  OF  QUESTIONS,  B7   TH« 

REV.  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  M.  A. 
REVISED  WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 

One  neat  volume,  12mo.    Price  SI. 

The  present  Manual  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  19  far  superior  to  any  taring  on  tN 
•ame  topics  as  yet  offered  to  the  American  public.  A  principal  Review  of  Germany  saya  :— 
Small  a»  he  compass  of  it  is,  we  may  confidently  arhrm  that  it  is  a  great  improvement  on  all 
preceding  worws  of  the  kind.  We  no  longer  meet  with  the  wretched  old  method,  in  which  sub- 
jects essentially  distinct  are  herded  together,  and  connected  subjects  disconnected,  but  hav«  a 
simple,  systematic  arrangement,  by  which  the  reader  easily  receives  a  clear  representa1'""  o( 
Roman  life.  We  s  longer  stumble  against  countless  errors  in  detail,  which  though  Jong  ago 
assailed  and  extirp^ed  by  Niebuhr  and  others,  have  found  their  last  place  of  refuge  in  our  Ma- 
nuals. The  recent  investigations  of  philologists  and  jurists  have  been  extensively,  but  carefullj 
and  circumspectly  used.  The  conciseness  and  precision  which  the  author  has  every  when 
prescribed  to  himself,  prevents  the  superficial  observer  from  perceiving  the  essential  superiority 
of  the  book  to  its  predecessors,  but  whoever  subjects  it  to  a  careful  examination  will  discover 
this  on  every  page." 

The  Editor  says : — "I  fully  believe  that  the  pupil  will  receive  from  these  little  works  n 
correct  and  tolerably  complete  picture  of  Grecian  and  Roman  life;  what  I  may  call  the  POLI- 
TICAL portions — the  account  of  the  national  constitutions  and  their  effects — appear  to  me  to  be 
of  great  value;  and  the  very  moderate  extent  of  each  volume  admits  of  its  being  thoroughly 
mastered — of  it?  being  GOT  UP  and  RETAINED." 

"  A  work  long  need  H!  in  our  schools  and  colleges.  The  manuals  of  Rennet,  Adam,  Potter, 
and  Robinson,  with  .:>e  more  recent  and  valuable  translation  of  Eschenburg,  were  entirely  too 
voluminous.  Here  is  nc -her  too  much,  nor  too  little.  The  arrangement  is  admirable — every 
subject  is  treated  of  in  its  proper  place.  We  have  the  general  Geography,  a  succinct  historical 
Tie  w  of  the  general  subject;  the  chirography,  history,  laws,  manners,  customs,  and  religion  of 
each  State,  as  well  i  ""the  points  of  union  for  all,  beautifully  arranged.  We  regard  the  work  aa 
the  7 ery  best  adj unf  to  classical  study  for  youth  that  we  have  seen,  and  sincerely  hope  that 
(Metiers  may  be  bri  Aht  to  regard  it  in  the  same  light.  The  whole  is  copiously  digested  into 
appropriate  questions."— #.  Lit.  Gazette. 

From  Professor  Lincoln,  of  Brown  University. 

u  I  found  0.1  my  table  after  a  short  absence  from  home,  your  edition  of  Bqjecen's  Greek  an 
Roman  Antiquities.  Pray  accept  my  acknowledgments  for  it.  I  am  agreeably  surprised  to 
find  on  exam'ning  it,  that  within  so  very  narrow  a  compass  for  so  comprehensive  a  subject,  tha 
book  contai  is  so  much  valuable  matter ;  and,  indeed,  so  far  as  I  see,  omits  noticing  no  topics  es- 
sential. It  will  be  a  very  useful  book  in  Schools  and  Colleges,  and  it  is  far  superior  to  any  thing 
that  I  know  of  the  same  kind.  Besides  being  cheap  and  accessible  to  all  students,  it  has  tha 
great  merit  of  discussing  its  topics  in  a  consecutive  and  connected  manner." 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Proftasor  Tyler,  of  Amfarst  College. 

"I  have  never  found  lime  till  lately  to  look  over  Bojesen's  Antiquities,  of  which  you  were 
lind  enoush  to  send  me  a  copy.  I  think  it  an  excellent  book;  learned,  accurate,  concise,  and 
ferspicuous;  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  Academy  or  the  College,  and  comprehending  ma 
«>nall  compass,  more,  '^at  ia  valu?.b!e  on  the  subject  thau  many  extended  treatises  " 

s 


HAND  BOOK 


MEDIEVAL   GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 

BY 

WILHELM    PUTZ, 

PRINCIPAL  TUTOR  IN  THE  GYMNASIUM  OF  DURCN. 

Translated  from  the  German  by 

REV,  R,  B,  PAUL,  M,  A,, 

Vicar  of  St.  Augiistine's,  Bristol,  and  late  Fellow  of  Exeter  Collect,  Oxferd. 
1  volume,  12mo.    75  cts. 
HEADS    OP    CONTENTS. 

I.  Germany  before  the  Migrations. 
II.   The  Migrations. 

THF    MIDDLE    AGES. 

FIRST  PE.HIOD. — From  the  Dissolution  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the  Accession  of  ti 
giutia  «iid  Abbasides. 

SECOND  PERIOD. — From  the  Accession  of  the  Carlovingians  and  Abbasides  to  the  first  Crusad* 

THIRD  PERIOD. — Age  of  the  Crusades. 

FOURTH  PERIOD.— From  the  Termination  of  the  Crusades  to  the  Discovery  of  America. 

"  The  characteristics  of  this  volume  are :  precision,  condensation,  and  luminous  arrangement 
It  is  precisely  what  it  pretends  to  be— a  manual,  a  sure  and  conscientious  guide  for  the  studeni 
through  the  crooks  anu  tangles  of  Mediaeval  history.  *  *  All  tin-  great  principles  of  tlii« 

ex'ensj^a  Peiiod  are  carefully  laid  down,  and  the  most  important  facts  skilfully  grouped  around 
them.  There  is  no  period  of  History  for  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  prepare  a  work  like  this 
an  1  none  for  which  it  is  so  much  needed.  The  leading  facts  are  well  established,  but  they  are 
scattered  over  an  immense  space ;  the  principles  are  ascertained,  but  their  development  was 
slow,  unequal,  and  interrupted.  There  is  a  general  breaking  up  of  a  great  body,  and  a  parcelling 
of  it  out  among  small  tribes,  concerning  whom  we  have  only  a  few  general  data,  and  are  lei;  p 
analogy  and  conjecture  for  the  details.  "Then  come  successive  attempts  at  organization,  each 
more  or  less  independent,  and  all  very  imperfect.  At  last,  modern  Europe  begins  slowly  to 
emerge  from  the  chaos,  bat  still  under  forms  which  the  most  diligent  historian  cannot  a!w"av<> 
comprehend.  To  reduoa  such  materials  to  a  clwar  and  definite  form  is  a  task  of  no  small  diffi- 
culty, and  in  which  partial  success  deserves  great  praise.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  '•  ha^ 
never  been  so  well  done  within  a  compass  BO  easily  mastered,  as  in  the  little  volume  wli.Ji  i? 
now  offered  to  the  public." — Extract Jrom  American  Preface. 

"This  translation  of  a  foreign  school-book  embraces  a  succinct  and  well  arranged  body  of 
facts  concerning  European  and  Asiatic  history  and  geography  during  (he  middle  ages.  It  it 
furnished  with  printed  questions,  and  it  seems  to  bi  well  "adapted  to  its  purpose,  in  all  r- 
The  mediaeval  period  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  the  annals  of  the  world,  and  a  knowledge 
of  its  great  men,  and  of  its  progress  in  arts,  arms,  government  and  religion,  is  particularly  ID:- 
portan',  since  this  period  is  the  basis  of  our  own  social  polity." — Commercial  Advertiser. 

"  This  is  an  immense  amount  of  research  condensed  into  a  moderately  sized  volume,  in  a  way 
T-hich  no  one  has  patience  to  do  but  a  German  scholar.  The  beauty  of  the  work  is  iis  lninin»iu 
arrangement.  It  in  a  guide  to  the  student  amidat  the  intricacy  of  Medieval  History,  ih«  mos1 
difficult  period  .if  '.he  world  to  understand,  when  the  Roman  Empire  was  break  ing  tip  and  par 
celling  out  into  smaller  kingdom  ,  and  every  thing  was  in  a,  transition  stale.  It  was  a  period  O' 
chao«  troin  whii-h  tpodem  Europe  was  at  length  to  a  •: 

The  author  has  briefly  taken  up  the  principal  political  and  social  influences  whicl'   wert 

.   'v,  and  shown   their   bearing   from   the  nine   previous  to  ihe   ;nigraiious  of  tl.e 

Northern  nations,  down  through   the   mi  '  tteenth  century.      The   r:  ve*  on    ihr 

rti.-nlarly  valuable,  and   lh  not   only  Em  r;ie  bin 

the  East.     To  ih«  student  it  will  be  a  m  :  I  .nd  book,  savin?  him  a  world  of  trouble 

fa  hunting  up  authorities  and  facts,  "--/icr.  Dr.  A7/>,  in  AUmny  State  Rtgistet. 


PROF.  MANDEViLLE'S  READING  BOOKS. 

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Jon  of  words,  with  a  biowltdge  of  their  grammatical  functions.  The  parts  of  speech  are  in- 
nx'uccd  successively,  beginning  with  (he  articles,  these  are  followed  by  the  Demonstrative  pro- 
nouns ;  and  these  again  by  others,  class  after  class,  until  all  that  are  requisite  to  form  a  rentenc* 
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reading  lessons  which  follow,  in  the  same  book  and  that  which  succeeds. 

These  lessons  have  been  selected  with  special  reference  to  the  following  peculiarities :  1st. 
Colloquial  character;  2d,  Variety  of  sentential  structure;  3d,  Variety  of  subject  matter;  4th 
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O-hers  in  use  ;  with  what  success,  a  brief  comparison  will  readily  show. 

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THE  COURSE  OF  READING  comprises  three  parts  ;  the  first  part  containing  a  more  elaborate 
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in  length,  are  adduced,  and  arranged  to  be  read  ;  and  as  each  species  has  its  peculiar  delivery  a* 
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served that  uie  selections  of  "sentences  in  part  second,  and  of  paragraphs  in  part  third,  comprise 
•ome  of  the  finest  gems  in  the  language  :  distinguished  alike  for  beauty  of  thought  and  facility 
Of  diction.  If  not  found  in  a  school  book,  they  might  be  approprately  called  "  elegant  extracts  " 

The  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  AND  ORATORY  closes  the  series  with  an  exhibition  of  the  whole 
theory  and  art  of  Elocution  exclusive  of  gesture.  It  contains,  besides  the  classification  of  sen- 
tences a'ready  referreu  u>,  but  here  presented  with  fuller  statement  and  illustration,  the  laws  of 
piractuation  and  delivery  deduced  from  it :  the  whole,  followed  by  carefully  selected  nieces  lor 
sentential  analysis  and  vocal  practice. 

THK  RESULT.— The  student  who  acquaints  himself  thoroughly  with  the  contents  of  thai 
book,  will,  as  numerous  experiments  have  proved ;  1st,  Acquire  complete  knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  the  language;  2d,  Bi  able  to  designate  any  sentence  of  any  book  byname  at  a 
gi&r.ce ;  bJ,  Be  able  to  declare  with  equal  rapidity  its  proper  punctuation ;  4th,  Be  able  to  debate, 
and  with  sufficient  practice  to  give  Its  proper  delivery.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  general  character- 
istics of  the  series  of  school  books  which  the  publishers  now  offer  to  the  friends  and  patrons 
of  a  sound  common  school  and  academic  education.  For  more  particular  information,  reference 
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N.  B.  The  punctuation  in  all  these  books  conforms,  in  the  main  to  the  sense  and  proper  de- 
livery of  every  sentence,  and  is  a  guide  to  both.  When  a  departure  from  the  proper  punctuation 
t»ccuns  the  proper  delivery  is  indicated.  As  reading  books  are  usually  punctuated,  it  io  a  mattei 
of  surprise  that  children  should  learn  to  read  at  all. 

"/  The  above  series  of  Reading  Books  are  already  very  extensively  introduced  anrt  com- 
mended by  tne  most  experienced  Teachers  in  the  country.  "Prof.  Mandeville's  system  is  emi 
nently  original,  scientific  and  practical,  and  destined  wherever  it  is  introduced  to  tmpenwd*  at 
once  «11  others." 


fttglislj. 
fHE    SHAKSPEARIAN    READER; 

A  COLLECTION  OF  THE  MOST  APPROVED  PLAVS  OF 

SH  AKSPE  ARE. 

CuJhlly  Revised,  with  Introductory  and  Explanatory  Notes,  and  a  Memoir 

of  the  Author.     Prepared  expressly  for  the  use  of  Classes, 

and  the  Family  Reading  Circle. 

BY  JOHN   W.  S.  HOWS, 

Professor  of  Elocution  in  Columbia  College. 

The  MAN,  whom  Nature's  self  hath  made 

To  mock  herself,  and  TRUTH  tc  imitate. — Spenser. 

One  Volume,  I2mo,  $1  25. 

At  a  period  when  the  fame  of  Shakspeare  is  "  striding. the  world  like  a  co.ossus, •'•*  and  edi 
Cims  of  Ml  works  are  multiplied  with  a  profusion  that  tesnfies  the  desire  awakened  in  all  claeo*) 
yf  society  to  read  and  study  his  imperishable  compositions, — there  needs,  perhaps  tat  little 
apology  "for  the  following  selection  of  his  works,  prepared  expressly  to  gender  them  unexcep- 
tionable for  the  uw  of  Schools,  and  acceptable  for  Family  reading.  Apart  from  the  fact,  tliat 
Shakspeare  is  the  "  well-spring  "  from  which  may  be  traced  the  origin  of  the  purest  poetry  in 
our  language, — a  long  course  of  professional  experience  has  satisfied  me  that  a  necessity  exifts 
for  the  addition  of  a  w^-k  like  the  present,  to  our  stock  of  Educational  Literature.  His  writings 
are  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  Elocutionary  exercise,  when  the  system  of  instruction 
pursued  by  the  Teacher  is  based  upon  the  true  principle  of  the  art,  viz. — a  careful  analysis  of 
the  structure  and  meaning  of  language,  rather  than  a  servile  adherence  to  the  arbitrary  and  me- 
chanical rules  of  Elocution. 

To  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  that  words  are  the  exposition  of  thought,  and  that  in 
reading,  or  speaking,  every  shade  of  thought  and  feeling  has  its  appropriate  shade  of  modulated 
tone,  ought  to  be  the  especial  aim  of  every  Teacher;  and  an  author  like  Shakspeare,  whose 
every  line  embodies  a  volume  of  meaning,  should  surely  form  one  of  our  Elocutionary  Text 
Books.  *  *  Still,  in  preparing  a  selection  of  his  works  for  the  express  purpose  contem- 
plated in  my  design,  I  have  not  hesitated  to  exercise  a  severe  revision  of  his  language,  beyond 
that  adopted  in  any  similar  undertaking — "  Bowdler's  Family  Shakspeare  "  not  even  excepted ; — 
and  simply,  because  1  practically  know  the  impossibility  of  introducing  Shakspeare  as  a  Class 
Book,  or  as  a  satisfactory  Reading  Book  for  Families  without  this  precautionary  rovisi  ;n.— 
tiff  Kt  from  the  Preface. 


niSTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY 

OP 

THE     MIDDLE     AGES 

(CHIEFLY   FROM  THE   FREV:U.) 

BY  G.W.GREENE, 

instructor  in  Brown    University. 

PART  I:  HISTORY.    One  volume,  12mo.    $1. 

Extract  from  Preface. 

"This  rolume,  as  the  title  indicates,  is  chiefly  taken  from  a  popular  French  \york,  which 
+r  rapidly  passed  through  several  editions,  and  received  the  sanction  of  the  University.  It 
Will  be  founu  to  contain  a  clear  and  satisfactory  exposition  of  the  Revolution  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
With  fiich  (.'cniTal  VICWH  of  literature,  society,  and  manner*,  as  arc  rc>|uircd  to  explain  the  pas- 
•age  from  ancient  to  modern  history.  At  the  IHM  1  of  rarh  chapter  there  is  an  analytical  sum- 
mary, which  will  be  found  of  great  assistanr.-  m  inanimation  or  in  review  Instead  of  a  single 
list  of  sovereigns,  I  have  preferred  giving  full  genealogical  tables,  which  are  much  clearer  and 
Infinitely  more  satisfactory. " 

10 


CLASS-BOOK  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


ZOOLOGY- 

DESIGNED  TO   AFFORD  PUPILS  IN  COMMON  SCHOOLS   AND    ACADEMIES  A 
KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM,  ETC. 

BY  PROFESSOR  J.  J/EGER. 

One  volume,  ISmo,  with  numerous  Illustrations.    Price  42  cents. 

"The  distinguished  ability  of  the  author  of  this  work,  both  while  engaged  during  nearly  ten 
years  as  Professor  of  Botany,  Zoology,  and  Modern  Languages,  in  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  and 
since  as  a  lecturer  in  some  of  the  most  distinguished  literary  institutions,  toother  witli  the  ran; 
advantages  derived  from  his  extensive  travels  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Kmperor  of  Russia,  affording  superior  facilities  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  in  lua 
department,  have  most  happily  adapted  Professor  Jffiger  to  the  task  he  ha«  with  K  much  ability 
performed,  viz. :  that  of  presenting  to  the  public  one  of  the  most  simple,  engaging,  and  useful 
Class-Books  of  Zoology  that  we  have  seen.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  purpose  ho  had  in 
view,  namely,  of  supplying  a  School  Book  on  this  subject  for  our  Common  Schools  and  Acade- 
mies, which  shall  be  perfectly  comprehensible  to  the  minds  of  beginners.  In  this  respect,  he 
has,  we  think,  most  admirably  succeeded,  and  we  doubt  not  that  this  little  work  will  become  one 
of  the  most  popular  Class  Books  of  Zoology  in  the  country." 

From  Prof.  Tayler  Lewis. 

"  Your  Class-Book  of  Zoology  ought  to  be  introduced  into  all  the  public  and  private  school* 
of  this  city,  and  1  should  rejoice  for  your  own  sake,  and  for  the  sake  of  sound  science,  to  hear  of 
its  obtaining  the  public  patronage  which  it  deserves." 

From  Dr.  T.  Romeyn  Deck,  of  Albany. 

"  The  copy  of  your  book  of  which  you  advised  me  last  week,  reached  me  this  morning.  I 
am  pleased  with  its  contents.  Of  its  accuracy  I  can  have  no  question,  knowing  your  long  and 
ardent  devotion  to  the  study  of  Natural  History.  It  will  be  peculiarly  useful  to  the  young  pupil, 
in  introducing  him  to  a  knowledge  of  our  native  animals." 

From  Rev.  Dr.  Campbell,  Albany. 

"  Your  '  Class-Book '  reached  me  safely,  and  I  am  delighted  with  it ;  but  what  is  more  to 
the  purpose,  gentlemen  T^ho  know  eomething  about  Zoology,  are  delighted  with  it,  such  as  Dr. 
Beck  and  Professor  Cook,  of  our  Academy.  I  have  no  doubt  that  we  shall  introduce  it." 


PRIMARY  LESSONS: 

BEING  A  SPELLER  AND  READER,  ON  AN  ORIGINAL  PLAN. 

In  which  one  letter  is  taught  at  a  lesson,  with  its  power;  an  application  being  immsdiatel/ 

made,  in  words,  of  each  letter  thus  learned,  and  those  words  being 

directly  arranged  into  reading  lessons. 

BY  ALBERT  D.  WRIGHT, 

AUTHDR   OP  "ANALYTICAL  ORTHOGRAPHY,"    "PHONOLOGICAL  CHART,"   ETC. 

One  neat  volume,  18mo,  containing  144  pages,  and  28  engravings.    Price  12£  cents,  bound.   I 

EASY  LESSONS   IN  LANDSCAPE, 

FOR  THE  PENCIL. 
BY  F.  N.  OTIS, 

IN  THREE  PARTS,  EACH  CONTAINING  SIXTEEN   LESSONS. 

Price  38  cents  each  part. 

These  Lessons  are  intended  for  the  use  of  schools  and  families,  and  are  so  arranged  that  wttfc 
the  aid  of  the  accompanying  directions,  teachers  unacquainted  with  drawing  may  introduce  it 
successfully  into  their  schools ;  and  those  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  a 
teacher,  may  pursue  the  study  of  drawing  without  difficulty. 

17 


<0rrrk  nnft  IMrrtn. 


GREEK    OLLENDORFF; 

BEING   A    PKOGRESSIVE   EXHIBITION   OF   THE   PRINCIPLES 
OF   THE    GKEEK    GRAMMAR, 

Designed  for  Beginners  in  Greek,  and  as  a  Book  of  Exercises  for 
Academies  and  Colleges. 

BY  ASAHEL  C-   KENDRICK, 

Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Rochctttr. 

One  volume,  12mo.    SI. 

Extract  from  the  Preface. 

The  present  work  is  what  its  title  indicates,  strictly  an  Ollendorff,  and  aims  to  apply  the 
methods  which  have  proved  so  successful  in  the  acquisition  of  the  Modern  languages  to  tha 
etutly  of  Ancient  Greek,  with  such  differences  of  course  as  the  different  genius  of  the  Greek, 
and  the  different  purposes  for  which  it  is  studied,  would  suggest.  It  differs  from  the  modern 
Ollendortfs  in  containing  Exercises  for  reciprocal  translation,  in  confining  them  within  a  smaller 
compass,  and  in  a  more  methodical  exposition  of  the  principles  of  the  language. 

It  differs,  on  the  other  hand,  from  other  excellent  elementary  works  in  Greek,  which  have 
recently  appeared,  in  a  more  rigid  adherence  to  the  Ollendorff  method,  and  the  greater  sim- 
plicity of  its  plan  :  in  simplifying  as  much  as  possible  the  character  of  the  Exercises,  and  in 
Keeping  out  of  eight  every  thing  which  would  divert  the  student's  attention  from  the  naked  con- 
struction. 

The  object  of  the  Author  in  this  work  was  twofold ;  first,  to  furnish  a  book  which  should 
serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  Greek,  and  precede  the  use  of  any  Grammar.  It  will 
therefore  be  found,  although  not  claiming  to  embrace  all  the  principles  of  the  Gnimmar,  yet 
complete  in  itself,  and  will  lead  the  pupil,  by  insensible  gradations,  from  the  simpler  con- 
structions to  those  which  are  more  complicated  and  difficult. 

The  exceptions,  and  the  more  idiomatic  forms,  it  studiously  leaves  one  side,  and  only  aims 
to  exhibit  the  regular  and  ordinary  usages  of  the  language,  as  the  proper  starting  point  for  the 
student's  further  researches. 

In  presenting  these,  the  Author  has  aimed  to  combine  the  strictest  accuracy  with  the  utmost 
simplicity  of  statement.  He  hopes,  therefore,  that  his  work  will  find  its  way  among  a  younger 
class  of  pupils  than  have  usually  engaged  in  the  study  of  Greek,  and  will  win  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  that  noble  tongue  many  in  our  Academies  and  Primary  Schools,  who  have  been  repelled 
by  the  less  simple  character  of  our  ordinary  text-books.  On  this  point  ha  would  speak  ear- 
nestly. This  book,  while  he  trusts  it.  will  bear  the  criticism  of  the  scholar,  and  be  found 
adapted  to  older  pupils,  has  been  yet  constructed  with  a  constant  reference  to  the  wants  of  the 
young  ;  and  he  knows  no  reason  why  boys  and  girls  of  twelve,  ten,  or  even  eight  years  of  age 
may  not  advantageously  be  put  to  th»  study  of  this  book,  and,  under  skilful  instruction,  rapidly 
maker  its  contents. 


GESENIUS'S  HEBREW  GRAMMAR 

Fourteenth  Edition,  as  revised  by  Dr.  E.  RODIGKR.  Translated  by  T.  J.  CONANI 
•  Professor  of  Hebrew  in  Madison  University,  N.  Y. 

With  the  Modifications  of  the  Editions  subsequent  to  the  Eleventh,  by  Dr.  DAVIES 

of  Stepney  College,  London. 

To  which  are  added,  A  COURSE  OF  EXERCISES  IN  HEBREW  GRAMMAR,  and  a  HEBREW  CHRB*< 
TOMATHT,  prepared  by  the  Translator.     One  handsomely  printed  vol.  8vo.     Price  f& 

Extract  from  the  Translator's  Preface. 

"The  fourteenth  edition  ol  tin-  ll-im  \\  (.i.umnur  of  Gesenius  is  now  offered  to  the  public 
by  the  translator  nf  the  eleventh  edition,  by  whom  ihi--  wm-k  \va*  tii>t  made  accessible  to  stu- 
dents in  the  English  lau^u;i^t:.  Tin'  COnvK'lon  rxpav-^d  lit  Ins  pit-fare  to  tLit  i-diii-m.  that  iu 
publication  in  •  would  subst.-rv.-  tin:  inii-n-ns  «•!'  llrbruw  literature,  ha>  been  fully 

KUMuincd  by  the  result.    After  a  full  trial  of  the  merits  of  this  work,  both  in  America  and  in 
E  iglaod,  ita  republicatum  is  naw  demanded  in  its  latest  ami  most  improved  form." 

36 


A  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  HISTORY, 

COMPRISING  : 

I.  ASCIKNT  HisroRk',  r.oiii;ii:iiii-  tin-  Political  History,  Geographical  Position,  and  Socia/ 
State  of  Ihe  Principal  N  uions  of  Antiquity,  carefully  digested  Iron)  the  Ancient  \Vntcrs,  an-l  il- 
i>.istrated  by  tin  dhc  oveiu-s  of  Modern  Travellers  and  Scholars. 

II.  MODERN  His  ronv,  containing  tin-  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  principal  European  Nation*, 
•Jinr  Political  History,  and  tin-  chan-jes  in  their  Social  Condition:  with  a  History  oi  the  Colmiiei 
Founded  by  Europeans.   Hy  \V.  COOK K  TA  VI. ( )H.  LI.. I) .. i  fTrinity College, Dubl  n.    Revised, 
wwi  Additions  on  American  History,  by  C.  S.  Henry,  I).  1).,  Professor  nf  Hi-inry  in  the  Univer 
«r.y  of  N    V.,  and  (Questions  adap'ed  for  the  l'se  of  Scliools  and  Colleges.     One  handsome  voj., 
&vo,  of  SOO  pages,  *J,2f> :  Ancient  History  in  1  vol.  «l,'j;»,  .rfodern  History  in  1  vol.,  «1.50. 

The  ANCIBNT  IIISTOHY  division  comprise*  Eighteen  Chapters,  whh  \  include  the  general 
outlines  of  the  History  of  Bgypt— the  Ethiopians— -Babylonia  and  Assyria— Western  Asiii— Pul 
estine— t'.ie  Empire  of  the  Meiles  and  Persians  Phoenician  Colonies  in  Northern  Africa— Fountw 
ation  and  History  of  the  Grecian  Slates— Greece— the  Macedonian  Kingdom  .u,,|  Eu.pire — the 
States  that  a  row  irotn  the  dismemberment  of  the  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire—  Ancionf 
Italv— Sicily— the  Roman  Republic— Geographical  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Roman  Kmnirt- 
--IJNtory  o'fthe  Roman  Empire — and  India— with  an  Appendix  of  important  illustrative  article* 

This  "portion  is  one  of  the  beat  Compends  of  Ancient  History  that  ever  yci  has  appeared  h 
?otitams  a  complete  tex'  for  the  collegiate  lecturer;  and  is  an  essential  hand-book  for  thestiidem 
who  is  desirous  to  become  acquainted  with  all  that  is  memorable  in  general  secular  archaeology. 

The  MODERN  HISTORY  portion  is  divided  into  Fourteen  Chapters,  on  the  followniL'  genera] 
subjects  : — Consequences  of  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire — Rise  and  Establishment  of  the 
Su.icenic  Power— Restoration  of  the  Western  Empire — Growth  of  the  Papal  Power-  -Revival 
of  Literature— Progress  of  Civilization  and  Invention — Reformation,  and  Commencement  of  thi 
States  System  in  Europe— Augustan  Ages  of  England  and  France — Mercantile  and  Colonial  Sys- 
tem—Age of  Revolutions — French  Empire — History  of  the  Peace— Colonization— China— the 
tows— with  Chronological  and  Historical  Tables  and  other  Indexes.  Dr.  Henry  has  appended  a 
new  chapter  on  the  History  of  the  United  States. 

This  Manual  of  Modern  History,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  is  the  most  valuable  and  instructiv«  worh 
concernins  the  general  subjects  which  h  comprehends,  that  can  be  found  in  the  whole  department 
of  historical  literature.  Mi.  Taylor's  book  is  fast  superseding  all  other  compends,  and  is  already 
fclopted  as  a  text-book  in  Harvard,  Columbia,  Yale,  New- York,  Pennsylvania  and  Brown  Un> 
rsrsities,  and  several  leading  Academies. 


LECTURES 

ON 

MODERN   HISTORY. 

By  THOMAS  ARNOLD,  D.D., 

Regius  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Head 
Master  of  Rugby  School. 

EDITED,    WITH    A    PREFACE    AND    NOTES, 

By  HENRY  REED,  LL.D., 
Profetsor  of  English  Literature  in  the  Univertity  qf  Pm. 

One  volume,  12mo.     $1,25. 

Extract  from  the  American  Editor's  Preface. 

In  Hr sparing  this  edition,  I  have  had  in  view  its  use,  not  only  for  the  general  reader,  but  also 
fc.  .«  leit-book  in  education,  especially  in  our  collejre  course  of  study.  *  "  '  *  The  introduction  of 
Jh  t  work  a«  a  text-book  I  regard  as  important,  because,  as  far  as  my  information  entitles  me  to 
Bwak,  theie  is  no  book  better  calculated  to  inspire  an  interest  in  historical  study.  That  it  naa 
this  power  over  the  minds  of  students  I  can  say  from  experience,  which  enables  me  also  to  add, 
that  I  have  found  it  excellently  suited  to  a  course  of  college  instruction.  By  intelligent  and  e»- 
ig  members  of  a  class  especially,  it  is  studied  as  a  text-book  with  zeal  and  animation. 
11 


HISTORICAL 

AND 

MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 

BY   RICHMALL   MANGNALL. 

first  American,  from  the  Eighty-fourth  London  Edition.    With  large  Audition* 

Embracing  the  Elements  of  Mythology,  Astronomy,  Architecture, 

Heraldry,  &c.    Adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States 

BY  MRS.  JULIA   LAWRENCE. 

Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings.     One  Volume,  12mo.     $1. 

CONTENTS 

A  Short  View  of  Scripture  History,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Return  of  the  Jews— Qu^stioni 
from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar — Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Grecian  History 
— Miscellaneous  Questions  in  General  History,  chiefly  Ancient — Questions  containing  a  Sketch 
of  the  most  remarkable  Events  from  the  Christian  Era  to  the  close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century- 
Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Roman  History — Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Invasion  of 
Caesar  to  the  Reformation — Continuation  of  Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  Present  Time — Abstract  of  Early  British  History — Abstract  of  English  Reisns  from  the 
Conquest— Abstract  of  the  Scottish  Reigns — Abstract  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Pharamuad  to 
Philip  1— Continuation  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Louis  VI  to  Louis  Phillippe — Questions  Re- 
lating to  the  History  of  America,  from  its  Discovery  to  the  Present  Time— Abstract  of  Roman 
Kings  and  most  distinguished  Heroes— Abstract  of  the  most  celebrated  Grecians— Of  Heathen 
Mythology  in  general— Abstract  of  Heathen  Mythology — The  Eleinenia  of  Astronomy— Expia- 
tion of  a  few  Astronomical  Terms — List  of  Constellations— Questions  on  Common  Subjects — 
Questions  on  Architecture — Questions  on  Heraldry — Explanations  of  such  Latin  Words  and 
Phrases  as  are  seldom  Englished — Questions  on  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

"  This  is  an  admirable  work  to  aid  both  teachers  and  parents  in  instructing  children  an-J  youth, 
ttnd  there  is  no  work  of  the  kind  that  we  have  seen  that  is  so  well  calculated  "  to  awaken  a  spirit 
Of  laudable  curiosity  in  young  minds,"  and  to  satisfy  that  curiosity  when  awakened." 


HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND, 

From  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Casar  to  the  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria. 

BY    MRS.  MARKHAM. 
A  new  Edition,  with  Questions,  adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States. 

BY  ELIZA  ROIJBINS, 
Avtfior  of  "  American  Pojrular  Lessons,"  "  Poetry  for  Schools,"  $c. 

One  Volume,  I2mo.     Price  75  cents. 

There  is  nothing  more  needed  in  our  schools  than  good  histories ;  not  the  dry  compends  U 
prevent  n«e,  but  elementary  works  that  shall  suggest  the  moral  uses  of  history,  and  the  provi 
di'iice  of  God,  manifest  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

Mr.  Markham'H  history  WHS  used  by  that  model  for  all  teachers,  the  late  Dr.  Arnold,  manto) 

of  Ihe  ere;i'  Kncli-h  school  at  Rushy,  find  aerees  in  its  character  with  hi*  rnliirhirnrd  and  pioui 

View*  of  teaching  history.     It  is  now  several  vears  since  I  ada|rvd  iliis  history  to  the  form  anC 

price  acceptable  in  the  schools  in  the  United  Stales.     I  have  recently  revised  it,  and  trum  that  i« 

be  extensively  serviceable  in  education. 

The  pnncipal  alterations  from  the.  original  are  a  now  ,-nuI  more  convenient  division  of  parn 

Cirphn,  and  entire  omission  of  the  MIlTWMtiolM  annexed  to  the  chapters.     In  the  place  of  thow 

>ifTli*»d  question*  to  every  page  thai   may  nt  once  facilitate  th«>  work  of  the  teacher  and 

Ihr;  pupil.    Th«  rational  and  rnornl  feature*  of  this  book  first  commended  it  to  me,  »nd  I  H 

uveu  »i  «ucc««ifully  with  my  own  »cholan». — Extract  from  the  American  Editor's  Preface. 


THE 

FIRST    HISTORY    OF    ROME, 

WITH  QUESTIONS. 

BY    E.    M.   SEWELL, 

Author  of  Amy  Herbert,  &c.,  &c.    One  volume,  16mo.    50  eta. 
Extract  from  Editor's  Preface, 

•'  History  is  the  narrative  of  real  events  in  the  order  and  circumstances  in  which  they  oc 
curml ;  and  of  all  histories,  that  of  Rome  comprises  a  scries  of  events  more  interesting  and  ia- 
strunive  to  youthful  readers  than  any  other  that  has  ever  been  written. 

"Of  the  manner  in  which  Mrs.  Sewell  has  executed  this  work,  we  can  scarcely  speak  ia 
terms  of  approbation  too  strong.  Drawing  her  materials  from  the  best — that  is  to  say,  the  most 
reliable — sources  she  has  incorporated  them  in  a  narrative  at  once  unostentatious,  perspicuous, 
and  graphic ;  manifestly  aiming  throughout  to  be  cleariy  understood  by  those  for  whom  sh« 
wrote,  and  to  impress  deeply  and  permanently  on  their  minds  what  she  wrote;  and  in  both  ol 
these  aims  we  think  she  has  been  eminently  successful." 

Norfolk  Academy,  Nc~/i'Jc,  Va. 

I  must  thank  you  for  a  copy  of  "Miss  Sawell's  Roman  History."  Classical  teachers  hava 
long  needed  just  such  a  work :  for  it  is  admitted  by  all  how  essential  to  a  proper  comprehension 
of  the  classics  is  a  knowledge  of  collateral  history.  Yet  most  pupils  are  construing  authors  be- 
fore reaching  an  age  to  put  into  their  hands  the  elaborate  works  we  have  heretofore  had  upoi 
Ancient  History.  Miss  Sewell,  while  she  gives  the  most  important  facts,  has  clothed  them  in  » 
style  at  once  pleasing  and  comprehensible  to  the  most  youthful  mind. 

R.  B.  TSCHUDI, 

Prof,  of  Anc'l  Languages. 


THE 

MYTHOLOGY  OF  ANCIENT  GREECE  AND  ITALY, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS. 
BY    THOMAS    KEIGHTLEY. 

One  vol.  16mo.    42  cts. 

"  This  is  a  volume  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  prepared.  It  presents,  in  » 
rery  compendious  and  convenient  form,  every  thing  relating  to  the  subject,  of  imp?  tance  to  tha 
young  student." 

GENERAL 

HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION  IN  EUROPE, 

FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  TO  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 
BY    M.    G  UIZOT. 

Eighth  American,  from  the  second  English  edition,  with  occasional  Notes,  by  C.  S.  HENRY,  D.D, 
One  volume,  12mo.    75  eta. 

"M.  Guizot,  in  his  instructive  lectures,  has  given  ua  an  epitome  of  modern  history,  distin- 
guished by  all  the  merit  which,  in  another  department,  renders  Blackstone  a  subject  of  such 
peculiar  and  unbounded  praise.  A  work  closelv  condensed,  including  nothing  useless,  omit- 
tinsr  nothiri?  essential  ;  written  with  grace,  and  conceived  £.nd  arranged  with  consummate 
ability."  —  Boston  Traveller. 


This   work    is   used    in   Harvard    University,    Union    College,    University   of 
Pennsylvania,  New-  York  University,  $c.  $c. 

13 


ENGLISH    SYNONYMES, 

CLASSIFIED  AND  EXPLAINED, 

WITH 

PRACTICAL   EXERCISES. 

DESIGNED    FOR    SCHOOLS    AND    PRIVATE   TUITION. 
BY    G.    F.    GRAHAM, 

Author  of '  English,  or  the  Art  of  Composition,'  &c. 
WITH    AN    INTRODUCTION   AND   ILLUSTRATIVE   AUTHORISES, 

BY    HENRY    REED,    LL.D., 
Prof,  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Perm, 

One  neat  Vol.   12mo.  81. 

CONTENTS.— SECTION  I.  Generic  and  Specific  Synonymes.  JfL  Actire 
and  Passive  Synonymes.  III.  S}Tnonymes  of  Intensity.  IV.  Positive 
and  Negative  Synonymes.  V.  Miscellaneous  Synonymes.  Index  to 
Synonymes.  General  Index. 

Extract  from  American  Introduction. 

"This  treatise  is  republished  and  edited  with  the  hope  that  it  will  be  found  useful  as  a  ten- 
boos  in  the  study  of  our  own  language.  As  a  subject  of  instruction,  the  study  of  the  English 
tongue  does  not  receive  that  amount  of  systematic  attention  which  is  due  to  it,  whether  it  be 
combined  or  no  with  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin.  In  the  usual  courses  of  education,  it  has 
no  larger  scope  than  the  study  of  some  rhetorical  principles  and  practice,  and  of  grammatical 
rules,  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  not  adequate  to  the  composite  character  and  varied  idiom  of 
English  speech.  This  is  far  from  being  enough  to  give  the  needful  knowledge  of  what  is  the 
livin?  lantMiatre,  both  of  our  English  literature  and  of  the  multiform  intercourse — oral  and  writ- 
ten— of  our  daily  lives.  The  language  deserves  better  care  and  more  sedulous  culture  ;  it  needs 
much  more  to  preserve  its  purity,  and  to  guide  the  progress  of  its  life.  The  young,  instead  of 
ha  vinir  only  such  familiarity  with  their  native  speech  as  practice  without  methvxl  or  theory  gives, 
should  be  HO  taught  and  trained  as  to  acquire  a  habit  of  using  words — whether  with  the  voice  or 
the  pen— fitly  and  truly,  intelligently  and  conscientiously." 

'•For  such  training,  this  book,  it  is  believed,  will  prove  serviceable.  The  « Practical  Exer- 
cises,' at  ached  to  the  explanations  of  the  words,  are  conveniently  prepared  for  the  routine  of 
instruction.  The  value  of  a  course  of  this  kind,  regularly  and  carefully  completed,  will  be  more 
than  the  amount  of  information  gained  respecting  the  words  thai  are  explained.  It  will  tend  to 
produce  a  thoughtful  and  accurate  use  of  language,  and  thus  may  be  acquired,  almost  uncon- 
sciously, thai  which  is  not  only  a  critical  but  a~ moral  habit  of  mind— the  habit  of  giving  utter- 
ance to  truth  in  pimple,  clear  and  precise  terms— of  telling  one's  thoughts  and  feelinss  in  wonto 
that  express  nothing  more  and  nothing  less.  It  is  thus  that  we  may  learn  how  to  escape  tlie 
evils  nf  v;iL'iii-ne*s.  ob.-cnrity  and  perplexity— the  manifold  mischiefs  of  words  used  thought- 
lessly and  at  random,  or  words  used  in  ignorance  and  confusion. 

""In  preparing  this  edition,  it  seemed  to  me  that  the  value  and  literary  interest  of  the  book 
might  !>••  increased  liy  the  introduction  of  a  series  of  illustrative  authorities.     It  is  in  ihr  mldi- 
maineo  within  brackets  under  each  title,  and  also  of  a  sieneral  index 
to  facilitate  reference,  that  this  edition  differs  from  the  original  edition,  which  in  other  , 

y  reprinted.     I  have  routined  my  choice  of  authorities  to  poetical  quotation*.  c'iir|ly  ho- 
H  in  poetry  that  laiiL'u.-i'.'c  H  found  in  in  hi'/hest  purity  and  perfection.     The  selection* 
•••[iin:i'!i    Iron-  three  of  the  I  each  a  L'reat'aiuhoriiy.  and  each  nelom'tii'.,'  to 

a  d'lli-  ent  period.  BO  that  in  thin  wiy  tome   hi-mrical   illustration  of  The  lanirua'-e  is  L-nvn  at 
llvu  Mine  time.     The  quotations  from  Shakspeare  (horn  A.  n.  hV.l,  died  li',ic,)  m,iy  \,fi  <-.• 
•ut  illu  I  at  the  do  -c  o|   tin-  Kith  and  beginning  of  the  l?th   century  ; 

>m   Milton  (born    1'KK  died    lf',7l)  the  surceeiliir,'  hall   century,  or  middle  erf"  the  l/'ik 
•entury ;  and  those  from  Wordsworth  (born  1770)  the  contemporary  use  in  the  19/h  century. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 


TIIK    PRONUNCIATION,     ETYMOLOGY,    AND     EXPLANATION    OF     ALL     WORDS    .AC. 
TIIOiUZED    BY   EMINENT    WRITERS; 

To  which  are  added,  a  Vocabulary  01'  the  Roots  of  English  Words,  and  an  AvAGlod 
List  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture  Proper  Names 

BY   ALEXANDER  REID,  A.M., 

Rector  of  the  Circus  School,  Edinlturgh. 

Wha  a  Critical  Preface,  by  HENRY  REED,  Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  0 

Pennsylvania    and  an  Appendix,  showing  the  Pronunciation  of  nearly  3viOU  of 

th»  ;«OM  important  (JeoinMpliical  Names.     One  volume,  l'2tno. 

of  nearly  GOO  j)ages,  bound  in  Leather.     Price  $1 

Among  tne  wants  of  our  time  was  a  -rood  dictionary  of  our  own  language,  especially  adapted 
for  academies  and  schools.  The  books  which  have  long  been  in  use  were  of  luile  value  to  the 
junior  students,  being  too  concise  in  the  definitions,  and  unmethodical  in  the  arrange  tvent 
Reid's  English  Dictionary  was  compiled  expressly  to  develop  the  precise  analogic  aim  v  irious 
properties  of  the  authorized  words  in  general  use,  ty  the  standard  authors  a~'d  orators  who  use 
our  vernacular  tongue. 

Exclusive  of  the  large  number  of  proper  names  which  are  appended,  this  Dictionary  includes 
four  especial  improvements  —  and  when  their  essential  value  to  the  student  is  considered,  the 
sterling  character  of  the  work  as  a  hand-book  of  our  language  will  be  instantly  perceived. 

The  primitive  word  is  distinguished  by  a  larger  type  ;  and  when  there  are  any  derivatives 
from  it,  they  follow  in  alphabetical  order,  and  the  part  of  speech  is  appended,  thus  furnishing  a 
complete  classification  of  all  the  connected  analogous  words  of  the  same  species. 

With  this  facility  to  comprehend  accurately  the  determinate  meaning  .  f  the  English  word,  in 
Conjoined  a  rich  illustration  for  the  linguist.  The  derivation  of  all  the  p.  'mitive  words  is  dis- 
tinctly given,  and  the  phrases  of  the  languages  whence  they  are  deduced,  wi.ether  composite  or 
simple;  so  that  the  student  of  foreign  languages,  both  ancient  and  modern,  by  a  reference  to 
any  word,  can  ascertain  the  source  whence  if  has  been  adopted  into  our  own  form  of  speech. 
This  is  a  great  acquisition  to  the  person  who  is  anxious  to  use  words  in  their  utmost  clearness 


To  these  advantages  is  subjoined  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Roots  of  English  Words,  which  is  of 
peculiar  value  to  the  collegian.  The  fifty  pages  which  it  includes,  furnish  the  linguist  with  a 
wide-spread  field  of  research,  equally  amusing  and  instructive.  There  is  also  added  an  Ac 
cented  List,  to  the  number  of  fifteen  thousand,  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture  Proper  Names. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

REID'S  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  an  admirable  book  for  the  use  of  schools. 
Its  plans  combine  a  greater  number  ol  desirable  conditions  (or  euch  a  work,  than  any  with 
which  1  am  acquainted:  and  it  seems  to  me  to  be  executed  in  general  with  great  judgment, 
fidelity,  and  accuracy. 

C.  S.  HENRY, 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  History,  and  Belles  Lettre»% 

in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New-  York. 

Reid's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  compiled  upon  sound  principles,  and  with 
judgment  and  accuracy.  It  has  the  merit,  too,  of  combining  much  more  than  is  usually  looked 
for  In  Dictionaries  of  small  size,  and  will,  I  believe,  be  found  excellent  as  a  convenient  manual, 
for  genera'  use  and  reference,  and  also  for  various  purposes  of  education. 

HENRY  REED, 
Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the   University  of  Pennsylvania. 

After  a  careful  examination,  I  am  convinced  that  Reid's  English  Dictionary  has  strong 
laims  upon  the  attention  of  teachers  generally.  It  is  of  convenient  size,  beautifully  executed, 
nd  seems  >\ell  adapted  to  the  use  of  scholars,  from  the  common  school  to  the  university. 

D.  II.  CHASE, 

Principal  of  Preparatory  School. 

MlDDLETOWN,  Ct 

Af'er  a  thorough  examination  of"  Reid's  English  Dictionary,"  I  may  safely  say  that  I  con 
sider  it  superior  to  any  of  the  School  Dictionaries  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  Its  accurate 
and  concise  definitions,  and  a  vocabulary  of  the  roots  of  English  words,  drawn  from  an  author 
of  such  authority  as  Bos  worth,  are  not  among  the  least  of  iuTexcellencies. 

M.  M.  PARKS, 
Chaplain  apul  Professor  of  Ethics,  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West  Point 

15 


<ITngi!0|f. 


A  TREATISE  ON  ALGEBRA. 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 
BY  S.  CHASE, 

PROFESSOR  OF  MATHEMATICS  IN  DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE. 

One  volume,  12mo,  340  pages.    Price  SI. 

**The  Treatise  which  Prof.  Chase  has  written  for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges,  seems  to  ut 
to  be  superior  in  not  a  few  respects  to  the  school  Algebras  in  common  use.  The  object  of  the 
writer  was,  "  to  exhibit  such  a  view  of  the  principles  of  Algebra,  as  shall  best  prepare  the  stu- 
dent for  the  further  pursuit  of  mathematical  studies."  He  has,  we  think,  succeeded  in  this  at- 
tempt. Hi*  book  is  more  complete  in  its  explanations  of  the  principles  of  Algebra  than  any 
text-book  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  examples  for  practice  are  pertinent,  and  are  suf- 
ficiently numerous  for  the  illustration  of  each  rule. 

"Mr.  C.  has  avoided,  by  his  plan,  the  common  fault  of  text  books  on  Algebra — uselessly  nu- 
merous examples,  and  meagerness  of  explanation  as  respects  the  principles  of  the  science.  The 
order  <>f  treatment  is  judicious.  Mr.  C.  has  added  a  table  of  formula:,  for  convenience  of  ufer- 
ence,  in  which  are  brought  into  one  view  the  principles  exhibited  in  different  parts  of  the  book. 
It  will  be  of  great  use  to" the  student.  We  think  the  book  is  well  adapted  to  schools  and  college^ 
into  many  ol  which  it  will,  no  doubt,  be  introduced."—  Ch.  Recorder. 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  GEOMETRY, 

UPON   THE   MODEL   OF   COLBURN'S    FIRST   LESSONS    IN    ARITHMETIC. 
BY    ALPHEUS    CROSBY, 

PROFESSOR  OF   MATHEMATICS   IN   DARTMOUTH   COLLEGE. 

One  volume,  16mo,  170  pages.    Price  37J  cents. 

This  work  is  approved  of  as  the  best  elementary  text-book  on  the  subject,  and  is  very  gen» 
rally  adopted  throughout  the  States. 


BURNAM'S  SERIES  OF  ARITHMETICS, 

FOR 

COMMON  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 

PART  FIRST  is  a  work  on  MENTAL  ARITHMETIC.  The  philosophy  of  the  mode  of  teach.  -4 
adopted  in  this  work,  is:  commence  where  the  child  commences,  and  proceed  as  the  child  pu 
ceeus  :  fall  in  with  his  own  mode  of  arriving  at  truth;  aid  him  to  think  for  himself,  and  do  n  it 
the  thinking  for  him.  Hence  a  series  of  exercises  are  given,  by  which  the  child  is  made  famili  if 
with  the  proi -i -.-•.  which  he  has  already  gone  through  with  in  acquiring  his  present  km> 

i-liild,  and  prepare  him  for  future  rapid  progress.    The  plan  is  so 

clearly  unfolded  by  illustration  and  example,  that  he  who  follows  it  can  scarcely  fail  to  secure, 
on  the  part  of  his  pupils,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject.    Price,  20  eta. 

PART  SECOND  is  a  work  on  WRITTEN  ARITHJ»ETIC.  It  is  the  result  of  a  long  experience 
in  tcachiiiL'.  and  contains  sufficient  of  Arithmetic  for  the  practical  business  purposes  of  life.  It 
illu-'ratfs  more  fully  and  applies  more  extendedly  and  practically  the  principle  of  Cancellation 
than  any  other  Arithmetical  treadle.  This  method  as  here  employed  in  connection  with  the  or- 
.  ;:rirty  of  illustrat ions,  which  canno!  fail  in  miriv-i  and  m~trnrt  the  scholar. 
i  :  throughout,  to  Impress  upon  the  mind  of  ihe  scholar  the  truth  that  he  will 

never  discover,  nor  need  a  new  principle  i.ryond  the  simple  rule-*.  The  piwil  is  showo,  DJ  • 
Tiriety  ol  IH-W  modes  of  ilhi'-'iraiion.  thai  new  nanir-i  and  m-w  p.i  VIOIH  IntrOQUCe  no  m;w  prin- 
ciple, but  that  they  are  merely  mat  ten  of  convenience.  Fr-n-iion*  aiv  treated  an  1  explained  the 
whole  numbers.  Formulas  are  also  Riven  for  drilling  the  scholar  upon  the  Blackboard 
which  will  be  found  of  service  to  many  teacher*  of  Common  Sclxools.  Price,  50  cu. 

16 


(Prrrk  ntrtt  Intin. 


TITUS   LIVIUS. 


CHIEFLY    FROM    THE    TEXT   OF   ALSCIIEFSKL 
WITH 

ENGLISH  NOTES,  GRAMMATICAL  AND  EXPLANATORY 

TOGETHER 

WITII    A    GEOGRAPHICAL    AND    HISTORICAL    INDEX. 

BY  J.  L.  LINCOLN, 

Professor  of  Latin  in  Hrown  University. 

WJTil  AN  ACCOMPANYING  PLAN  OF  ROME,  AND  A  MAP  OF  THE  PASSAdE  OP  HAN5IBAL. 

One  volume,  I2mo.    Price  $1. 

The  publishers  believe  that,  in  the  edition  of  Livy  herewith  announce'1,  a  want  la  supplied 
which  nas  been  universally  felt ;  there  being  previous  to  this  no  American  edition  furniaheo  wilL 
Ibe  requisite  apparatus  for  the  successful  prosecution  of  the  study  of  thib  Latin  author. 

OPINIONS   OF   CLASSICAL   PROFESSORS. 

From  Professor  Kingsley,  of  Yale  College. 

11 1  have  not  yet  been  able  to  read  the  whole  of  your  work,  hut  have  examined  it  enough  to  f» 
satisfied  that  it  is  judiciously  prepared,  and  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  intended.  We  use  it 
for  the  present  year,  in  connection  with  the  edition  that  has  been  used  for  several  years.  Most 
of  the  class,  however,  have  procured  your  edition  :  and  it  is  probable  that  next  year  it  will  be 
used  by  all." 

From  Professor  Tyler,  of  Amherst  College. 

"  The  notes  seem  to  me  to  be  prepared  with  much  care,  learning,  and  taste ;  the  grammatical 
illustrations  are  unusually  full,  faithful,  and  able.  The  book  has  been  used  by  our  Freshman 
Class,  and  will  I  doubt  not  come  into  general  use  in  our  colleges. 

From  Professor  Packard,  of  Bowdoin  College. 

"  I  have  recommended  your  edition  to  our  Freshman  Class.  I  have  no  doubt  that  your  labors 
will  give  a  n  *.w  impulse  to  the  study  of  this  charming  classic. 

From  Professor  Anderson,  of  Wateroille  College. 

"  A  careful  examination  of  several  portions  of  your  work  has  convinced  me  that,  for  the  use 
of  students  it  is  altogether  superior  to  any  edition  of  Livy  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  Among 
its  excellences  you  will  f  armit  me  to  name,  the  close  attention  given  to  particles — to  the  sub- 
junctive mood — the  constant  references  to  the  grammars — the  discrimination  of  words  nearly 
synonymous  and  the  care  in  giving  the  localities  mentioned  in  the  text.  The  book  will  be  neie 
after  used  in  jur  college." 

From  Professor  Johnson,  of  New  -  York  University. 

u  I  can  at  present  only  say  that  your  edition  pleases  me  much.    I  shall  give  it  to  one  of  nrj 
•  eUsses  next  week.    I  am  prepared  to  find  it  just  what  was  wanted." 


WORKS   OF   HORACE. 

WITH  ENGLISH  NOTES,  CRITICAL  AND  EXPLANATORY. 
BY  J.  L.  LINCOLN, 

Professor  of  Lsnin  in  Brown  University. 

WITH     MAPS     AND     ILLUSTRATIONS. 
One  volume,  12mo. 

The  text  of  this  edition  is  chiefly  that  of  Orelli ;  and  the  Notes,  besides  embodying  whatever 
IB  valuable  in  the  most  recent  and  approved  German  editions  of  Horace,  contain  the  results  of 
the  Editor's  studies  and  experience  as  a  College  Professor,  which  he  has  been  gathering  and 
maturing  for  several  years  with  a  view  to  publication.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  both  the  Pub- 
lishers and  the  Editor  to  mak«  this  edition  in  all  respects  suitable  to  the  wants  of  America*, 
•chools  and  colleges. 

33 


frtrft  (mil  Intiu. 


C.  JULIUS  (LESAira  COMMENTARIES 

ON   THE 

GALLIC   WAR. 

With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory;  A  Lexicon,  'icographical  and 
Historical  Indexes,  &o,. 

BY  REV.  J.  A.  SPENCER,  A.M., 

Editor  of"  Arnold's  Series  of  Greek  and  La.  in  Books,"  eie. 

One  handsome  vol.  12mo,  with  Map.    Price  81. 

T;  e  press  of  Messrs.  Appleton  is  becoming  prolific  of  superior  editions  of  the  classics  used 
in  schools,  and  ihe  volume  now  before  us  we  are  disposed  to  regard  as  one  of  the  nost  beautiful 
aiiil  liish'y  finished  among  them  all,  both  in  its  editing  and  its  execution.  The  classic  Latin  in  which 
the  greatest  general  and  the  greatest  writer  of  his  age  recorded  his  achievements,  has  leen  sadly 
corrupted  in  the  lapse  of  centuries,  and  its  restoration  to  a  pure  and  perfect  text  is  a  work  re- 
qiiirin<r  nice  discrimination  and  sound  learning.  The  text  which  Mr.  Spencer  has  adopted  is  that 
of  Oudendorp,  with  such  variations  as  were  suggested  by  a  careful  collation  of  the  leadin?  critics 
of  Germany.  The  notes  are  as  they  should  be,  designed  to  aid  the  labors  of  the  student,  not  to 
supersede  them.  In  addition  to  these,  the  volume  contains  a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Caesar,  a  brief 
Lexicon  of  Latin  words,  a  Historical  and  a  Geographical  Index,  together  with  a  map  of  the 
country  in  which  the  great  Roman  conqueror  conducted  the  campaigns  he  so  graphically  de- 
scribes. The  volume,  as  a  whole,  however,  appears  to  be  admirably  suited  to  the  purpose  lor 
which  it  was  designed.  Its  style  of  editing  ana  its  typographical  execution  reminds  us  of  Prof. 
Lincoln's  excellent  edition  of  Livy — a  work  which  some  months  since  hud  already  passed  to  a 
second  impression,  and  has  now  been  adopted  in  most  of  the  leading  schools  and  colleges  of  the 
country.— Providence  Journal. 

"  The  type  is  clear  and  beautiful,  and  the  Latin  text,  as  far  as  we  have  examined  it,  extremely 
accurate,  and  worthy  of  the  work  of  the  great  Koman  commander  and  historian.  No  one  edition 
lia<  In  rii  entirely  followed  by  Mr.  Spencer.  He  has  drawn  from  Oudendorp,  Achaimre.  Lamuire. 
Oberlin.  Schneider,  and  Giani.  His  notes  are  drawn  Kunewbai  from  the  above,  and  also  from 
\  .  l)avit-s,  ('lurke,  ami  Stutgart.  These,  together  with  his  own  corrections  and  nou-s.  and 

an  excellent  lexicon  attached,  render  this  volume  the  most  complete  and  valuable  edition  ol 
Commentaries  yet  published. — Albany  Spectator. 

EXERCISES  IN  GREEK  PROSE  COMPOSITION. 

ADAPTED   TO    THE 

FIRST  BOOK  OF  XENOPHON'S  ANABASIS. 

BY  JAMES  R.  BOISE, 

Professor  in  Brown  University.  • 

One  volume,  12mo.    Price  seventy-five  cents. 

V  For  the  convenience  of  the  learner,  an  English-Greek  Vocabulary,  a  Catalogue  of  the  Irre- 
gular Verbs,  and  an  Index  to  the  principal  Grammatical  Notes  have  been  appended. 

"  A  Rchool-book  of  the  highest  order,  containing  a  carefully  arranged  series  of  exercises  de- 
rived from  ihe  first  book  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  (which  is  appended  entire,)  an  Kng'ish  and 
Gretk  vocabulary  and  a  list  of  the  principal  modifications  of  invirular  verbs.  We  regard  it  ai 
on.  p., u  liar  excellence  of  this  book,  that  it  presupposes  both  the  diligent  scholar  and  the  pains- 
taking teacher,  in  tther  hands  it  would  be  not  only  useless,  but  unusable.  We  like  it  also,  be 
,-iead  of  aimin?  to  five  the  pupil  practice  in  a  variety  of  styles,  it  places  before  him  but 
a  single  model  of  Greek  composition,  and  that  the  very  author  who  combines  in  the  greatest  de- 
gree, purity  of  language  and  idiom,  with  a  simplicity  that  both  invites  and  rewards  imitation." 
—  On  Lilian  Register. 

•'Mi    I:  I     •:•  "-->-or  <>i  Creek  in  Brown  University,  and  has  prepared  these  exercise* 

a.«  ;ni  accompaniment  to  die  First  Book  ol  tin-  An  ih.i  i-  of  Xenophon      We  have  examined  tho 

pl,u    with    •  atirnMon.  .in. I  an-  -truck  wiih   its  utility.     The  exercises  consist  of  sh" 

tences,  i  .  !  m  the  trxi  ol  ilu-  Ai,  iU  isis,  and  mvolviii'.'  ihr  < .inn-  construc- 

tions; ami  ihe  sv-'ifin.  if  faithfully  pursued,  must  not  on!v  Ir.i.l  to  I. militarily  with  the  author. 
.•mal  a.iop'ion  ol  IPS  style,  but  also  to  great  ease  and  faultlea*  excellence  in  Greek  con> 
position." — Protestant  Churchman. 

34 


YB  ? 1 564 


